6.2.2.1 Anonymous pipes

Perl's open function opens a pipe instead of a file when you append or prepend a pipe symbol to the second argument to open. This turns the rest of the argument into a command, which will be interpreted as a process (or set of processes) to pipe a stream of data either into or out of. Here's how to start up a child process that you intend to write to:

open SPOOLER, "| cat -v | lpr -h 2>/dev/null"
                or die "can't fork: $!";
local $SIG{PIPE} = sub { die "spooler pipe broke" };
print SPOOLER "stuff\n";
close SPOOLER or die "bad spool: $! $?";

This example is actually starting up two processes, the first of which (running cat) we print to directly. The second process (running lpr) then receives the output of the first process. In shell programming this is often called a pipeline. A pipeline can have as many processes in a row as you like.

And here's how to start up a child process that you intend to read from:

open STATUS, "netstat -an 2>&1 |"
                or die "can't fork: $!";
while (<STATUS>) {
    next if /^(tcp|udp)/;
    print;
} 
close STATUS or die "bad netstat: $! $?";

You can open a pipeline for input just as you can for output, but we don't show it in this example.

You might have noticed that you can use backticks to accomplish the same effect as opening a pipe for reading:

print grep { !/^(tcp|udp)/ } `netstat -an 2>&1`;
die "bad netstat" if $?;

While this is true, it's often more efficient to process the file one line or record at a time, because then Perl doesn't have to read the whole thing into memory at once. It also gives you finer control of the whole operation, letting you kill off the child process early if you like.

Be careful to check the return values of both open and close. (If you're writing to a pipe, you should also be prepared to handle the PIPE signal, which is sent to you if the process on the other end dies before you're done sending to it.) The reason you need to check both the open and the close has to do with an idiosyncrasy of UNIX in how piped commands are started up. When you do the open, your process forks a child process that is in charge of executing the command you gave it. The fork(2) system call, if successful, returns immediately within the parent process, and the parent script leaves the open function successfully, even though the child process may not have even run yet. By the time the child process actually tries to run the command, it's already a separately scheduled process. So if it fails to execute the command, it has no easy way to communicate the fact back to the open statement, which may have already exited successfully in the parent. The way the disaster is finally communicated back to the parent is the same way that any other disaster in the child process is communicated back: namely, the exit status of the child process is harvested by the parent process when it eventually does a wait(2) system call. But this happens in the close function, not the open function. And that's why you have to check the return value of your close function. Whew.

6.2.2.2 Talking to yourself

Another approach to IPC is to make your program talk to itself, in a manner of speaking. Actually, your process talks to a forked copy of itself. It works much like the piped open we talked about in the last section, except that the child process continues executing your script instead of trying to execute some other command.

To represent this to the open function, you use a pseudo-command consisting of a minus. So the second argument to open looks like either "-|" or "|-", depending on whether you want to pipe from yourself or to yourself. The open function returns the child's process ID in the parent process, but 0 in the child process. Another asymmetry is that the filehandle is used only in the parent process. The child's end of the pipe is hooked to either STDIN or STDOUT as appropriate. That is, if you open a pipe to minus, you can write to the filehandle you opened and your kid will find it in his STDIN. If you open a pipe from minus, you can read from the filehandle you opened whatever your kid writes to her STDOUT.

This is useful for safely opening a file when running under an assumed UID or GID, for example:

use English;
my $sleep_count = 0;

do { 
    $pid = open(KID_TO_WRITE, "|-");
    unless (defined $pid) {
        warn "cannot fork: $!";
        die "bailing out" if $sleep_count++ > 6;
        sleep 10;
    } 
} until defined $pid;

if ($pid) {  # parent
    print KID_TO_WRITE @some_data;
    close(KID_TO_WRITE) or warn "kid exited $?";
}
else {       # child
    ($EUID, $EGID) = ($UID, $GID); # suid progs only
    open (FILE, "> /safe/file") 
                    or die "can't open /safe/file: $!";
    while (<STDIN>) {
        print FILE; # child's STDIN is parent's KID
    } 
    exit;  # don't forget this
}

Another common use for this construct is to bypass the shell when you want to open a pipe from a command. You might want to do this for security reasons, because you don't want the shell interpreting any metacharacters in the filenames you're trying to pass to the command. We give an example of this later in the chapter - see "Cleaning Up Your Path".

Note that these operations are full UNIX forks, which means they may not be correctly implemented on alien systems. Additionally, these are not true multi-threading. If you'd like to learn more about threading, see CPAN.

6.2.2.3 Bidirectional communication

While pipes work reasonably well for unidirectional communication, what about bidirectional communication? The obvious thing you'd like to do doesn't actually work:

open(PROG_FOR_READING_AND_WRITING, "| some program |")  # WRONG!

and if you forget to use the -w switch, then you'll miss out entirely on the diagnostic message:

Can't do bidirectional pipe at myprog line 3.

The open function won't allow this because it's rather error prone unless you know what you're doing, and can easily result in deadlock, which we'll explain later. But if you really want to do it, you can use the standard IPC::Open2 library module to attach two pipes to a subprocess's STDIN and STDOUT. There's also an IPC::Open3 module for tridirectional I/O (allowing you to catch your child's STDERR), but this requires an awkward select loop and doesn't allow you to use normal Perl input operations.

If you look at the source, you'll see that Open2 uses low-level primitives like pipe and exec to create all the connections. While it might have been slightly more efficient to use socketpair, it would have been even less portable. As it is, the Open2 and Open3 modules are unlikely to work anywhere except on a UNIX system, or some other system purporting to be POSIX compliant.

Here's an example using IPC::Open2::open2():

use FileHandle;
use IPC::Open2;
$pid = open2( \*Reader, \*Writer, "cat -u -n" );
Writer->autoflush();     # This is default, actually.
print Writer "stuff\n";
$got = <Reader>;

The problem with this in general is that UNIX buffering is really going to ruin your day. Even though your Writer filehandle is autoflushed, and the process on the other end will get your data in a timely manner, you can't usually do anything to force it to actually give it back to you in a similarly quick fashion. In this particular case we can, since (on some systems) the cat program has a -u option to make it do unbuffered output. But very few UNIX commands are designed to operate well over pipes, so this seldom works unless you yourself wrote the program on the other end of the double-ended pipe.

A partial solution to this is to use the Comm.pl library (not a standard module - see CPAN). It uses pseudo-ttys to make your program behave more reasonably, at least on those machines that force standard output to do line-buffering:

require 'Comm.pl';
$ph = open_proc('cat -n');
for (1..10) {
    print $ph "a line\n";
    print "got back ", scalar <$ph>;
}

This way you don't have to have control over the source code of the program you're using.

6.2.2.4 Named pipes

A named pipe (often called a FIFO) is an old UNIX mechanism for setting up pipes between unrelated processes. The names in question exist in the filesystem, which is just a funny way to say that you can put a special file in the filesystem that has another process behind it instead of a disk.

To create a named pipe, use the UNIX command mknod(1) or, on some systems, mkfifo(1). These commands may not be in your normal execution path.

# system() return value is backwards, so "and" not "or"
#
$ENV{PATH} .= ":/etc:/usr/etc";
if  (      system('mknod',  $path, 'p') 
       and system('mkfifo', $path) )
{
    die "mk{nod,fifo} $path failed";
}

A FIFO is convenient when you want to connect a process to an unrelated one. When you open a FIFO, the program will block until there's something on the other end.

For example, let's say you'd like to have your .signature file be a named pipe that has a Perl program on the other end. Now every time any program (like a mailer, newsreader, finger program, and so on) tries to read from that file, the reading program will block and your program will supply the new signature. We'll use the pipe-checking file test, -p, to find out whether anyone (or anything) has accidentally removed our FIFO.

chdir; # go home
$FIFO = '.signature';
$ENV{PATH} .= ":/etc:/usr/games";

while (1) {
    unless (-p $FIFO) {
        unlink $FIFO;
        system('mknod', $FIFO, 'p') 
            && die "can't mknod $FIFO: $!";
    }

    # next line blocks until there's a reader
    open (FIFO, "> $FIFO") or die "can't write $FIFO: $!";
    print FIFO "John Smith (smith\@host.org)\n", `fortune -s`;
    close FIFO;
    sleep 1;    # to avoid dup sigs
}

If that last comment seems opaque to you, consider how often the fortune program changes its current fortune.

Note that a FIFO in an NFS partition won't transfer data across your network.

6.2.4.1 Internet TCP clients and servers

Use Internet-domain sockets when you want to do client-server communication between different machines.

Here's a sample TCP client using Internet-domain sockets:

#!/usr/bin/perl -w
require 5.002;
use strict;
use Socket;
my ($remote, $port, $iaddr, $paddr, $proto, $line);

$remote  = shift || 'localhost';
$port    = shift || 2345;  # random port
if ($port =~ /\D/) { $port = getservbyname($port, 'tcp') }
die "No port" unless $port;
$iaddr   = inet_aton($remote)              or die "no host: $remote";
$paddr   = sockaddr_in($port, $iaddr);

$proto   = getprotobyname('tcp');
socket(SOCK, PF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, $proto) or die "socket: $!";
connect(SOCK, $paddr)                      or die "connect: $!";
while ($line = <SOCK>) {
    print $line;
}

close (SOCK)                               or die "close: $!";
exit;

And here's a corresponding server to go along with it. The client didn't need to bind an address, but the server does. However, we'll specify the address as INADDR_ANY so that the kernel can choose the appropriate interface on multi-homed hosts. If you want to sit on a particular interface (like the external side of a gateway or firewall machine), you should fill this in with your real address instead.

#!/usr/bin/perl -Tw
require 5.002;
use strict;
BEGIN { $ENV{PATH} = '/usr/ucb:/bin' }
use Socket;
use Carp;

sub logmsg { print "$0 $$: @_ at ", scalar localtime, "\n" }

my $port = shift || 2345;
my $proto = getprotobyname('tcp');
socket(Server, PF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, $proto) or die "socket: $!";
setsockopt(Server, SOL_SOCKET, SO_REUSEADDR, pack("l", 1))
                                             or die "setsockopt: $!";
bind(Server, sockaddr_in($port, INADDR_ANY)) or die "bind: $!";
listen(Server,SOMAXCONN)                     or die "listen: $!";

logmsg "server started on port $port";

my $paddr;

$SIG{CHLD} = \&REAPER;

for ( ; $paddr = accept(Client,Server); close Client) {
    my($port,$iaddr) = sockaddr_in($paddr);
    my $name = gethostbyaddr($iaddr,AF_INET);

    logmsg "connection from $name [", 
            inet_ntoa($iaddr), "] at port $port";

    print CLIENT "Hello there, $name, it's now ", 
                    scalar localtime, "\n";
}

And here's a multi-threaded version. It's multi-threaded in the sense that, like most typical servers, it spawns (forks) a slave server to handle the client request so that the master server can quickly go back to service the next client.

#!/usr/bin/perl -Tw
require 5.002;
use strict;
BEGIN { $ENV{PATH} = '/usr/ucb:/bin' }
use Socket;
use Carp;
use FileHandle;

sub spawn;  # forward declaration
sub logmsg { print "$0 $$: @_ at ", scalar localtime, "\n" } 

my $port = shift || 2345;
my $proto = getprotobyname('tcp');
socket(Server, PF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, $proto) or die "socket: $!";
setsockopt(Server, SOL_SOCKET, SO_REUSEADDR, pack("l", 1))
                                             or die "setsockopt: $!";
bind(Server, sockaddr_in($port, INADDR_ANY)) or die "bind: $!";
listen(Server,SOMAXCONN)                     or die "listen: $!";

logmsg "server started on port $port";

my $waitedpid = 0;
my $paddr;

sub REAPER { 
    $waitedpid = wait;
    $SIG{CHLD} = \&REAPER;  # if you don't have sigaction(2)
    logmsg "reaped $waitedpid" . ($? ? " with exit $?" : "");
}
$SIG{CHLD} = \&REAPER;

for ( ; $paddr = accept(Client,Server); close Client) {
    my($port,$iaddr) = sockaddr_in($paddr);
    my $name = gethostbyaddr($iaddr,AF_INET);

    logmsg "connection from $name [", 
            inet_ntoa($iaddr), "] at port $port";

    spawn sub { 
        print "Hello there, $name, it's now ", scalar localtime, "\n";
        exec '/usr/games/fortune' 
            or confess "can't exec fortune: $!";
    };

} 

sub spawn {
    my $coderef = shift;

    unless (@_ == 0 && $coderef && ref($coderef) eq 'CODE') { 
        confess "usage: spawn CODEREF";
    }

    my $pid;
    if (!defined($pid = fork)) {
        logmsg "cannot fork: $!";
        return;
    } elsif ($pid) {
        logmsg "begat $pid";
        return; # i'm the parent
    }
    # else i'm the child -- go spawn

    open(STDIN,  "<&Client")    or die "can't dup client to stdin";
    open(STDOUT, ">&Client")    or die "can't dup client to stdout";
    STDOUT->autoflush();
    exit &$coderef();
}

As mentioned, this server takes the trouble to clone off a child version via fork for each incoming request. That way it can handle many requests at once, as long as you can create more processes. (You might want to limit this.) Even if you don't fork, the listen will allow up to SOMAXCONN (usually five or more) pending connections. Each connection uses up some resources, although not as much as a process. Forking servers also have to be particularly careful about cleaning up their dead children (called zombies in UNIX), because otherwise they'd quickly fill up your process table. The REAPER code above will take care of that for you.

If you're running on a system without restartable system calls (or if you want to be really careful in case you might someday run on such a system), you'll have to write a more elaborate for loop. That's because the act of collecting the zombie child process may cause the accept to fail and return the undefined value, making your loop fail prematurely. Here's a work-around:

for ( $waitedpid = 0; 
      ($paddr = accept(Client,Server)) || $waitedpid; 
      $waitedpid = 0, close Client) 
{
    next if $waitedpid and not $paddr;   # or check $! == EINTR
    # the rest is the same...

We suggest that you use the -T switch to enable taint checking (see "Cooperating with Strangers" and "Cooperating with Other Languages" later in this chapter) even if you aren't running setuid or setgid. This is always a good idea for servers and other programs (like CGI scripts) that run on behalf of someone else, because it lessens the chances that people from the outside will be able to compromise your system.

Let's look at another TCP client. This one connects to the TCP "time" service on a number of different machines and shows how far their clocks differ from the system on which the client is being run:

#!/usr/bin/perl -w
require 5.002;
use strict;
use Socket;

my $SECS_of_70_YEARS = 2208988800;
sub ctime { scalar localtime(shift) }

my $iaddr = gethostbyname('localhost'); 
my $proto = getprotobyname('tcp');   
my $port = getservbyname('time', 'tcp');  
my $paddr = sockaddr_in(0, $iaddr);
my($host);

$| = 1;
printf "%-24s %8s %s\n",  "localhost", 0, ctime(time());

foreach $host (@ARGV) {
    printf "%-24s ", $host;
    my $hisiaddr = inet_aton($host)     or die "unknown host";
    my $hispaddr = sockaddr_in($port, $hisiaddr);
    socket(SOCKET, PF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, $proto)
                                        or die "socket: $!";
    connect(SOCKET, $hispaddr)          or die "bind: $!";
    my $rtime = '    ';
    read(SOCKET, $rtime, 4);
    close(SOCKET);
    my $histime = unpack("N", $rtime) - $SECS_of_70_YEARS ;
    printf "%8d %s\n", $histime - time, ctime($histime);
}

6.2.4.2 UNIX-domain clients and servers

That's all fine for Internet-domain clients and servers, but what about local communications? While you can just pretend that your local machine is remote, sometimes you don't want to. UNIX-domain sockets are local to the current host, and are often used internally to implement pipes. They tend to be a little more efficient than Internet-domain sockets. Unlike Internet-domain sockets, UNIX domain sockets can show up in the file system with an ls(1) listing.

$ ls -l /dev/log
srw-rw-rw-  1 root            0 Oct 31 07:23 /dev/log

You can test for these with Perl's -S file test:

unless ( -S '/dev/log' ) {
    die "something's wicked with the print system";
}

Here's a sample UNIX-domain client:

#!/usr/bin/perl -w
require 5.002;
use Socket;
use strict;
my ($rendezvous, $line);

$rendezvous = shift || '/tmp/catsock';
socket(SOCK, PF_UNIX, SOCK_STREAM, 0)     or die "socket: $!";
connect(SOCK, sockaddr_un($rendezvous))   or die "connect: $!";
while ($line = <SOCK>) {
    print $line;
} 
exit;

And here's a corresponding server.

#!/usr/bin/perl -Tw
require 5.002;
use strict;
use Socket;
use Carp;

BEGIN { $ENV{PATH} = '/usr/ucb:/bin' }

my $NAME = '/tmp/catsock';
my $uaddr = sockaddr_un($NAME);
my $proto = getprotobyname('tcp');

socket(Server,PF_UNIX,SOCK_STREAM,0)      or die "socket: $!";
unlink($NAME);
bind  (Server, $uaddr)                    or die "bind: $!";
listen(Server,SOMAXCONN)                  or die "listen: $!";

logmsg "server started on $NAME";

$SIG{CHLD} = \&REAPER;

for ( ; $paddr = accept(Client,Server); close Client) {
    logmsg "connection on $NAME";
    spawn sub { 
        print "Hello there, it's now ", scalar localtime, "\n";
        exec '/usr/games/fortune';
        die "can't exec fortune: $!";
    };
}

As you see, it's remarkably similar to the Internet-domain TCP server, so much so, in fact, that we've omitted several duplicate functions - spawn(), logmsg(), ctime(), and REAPER() - which are exactly the same as in the other server.

So why would you ever want to use a UNIX domain socket instead of a FIFO? Because a FIFO doesn't give you sessions. You can't tell one process's data from another's. With socket programming, you get a separate session for each client - that's why accept takes two arguments.

For example, let's say that you have a long-running database server daemon that you want folks from the World Wide Web to be able to access, but only if they go through a CGI interface. You'd have a small, simple CGI program that does whatever checks and logging you feel like, and then acts as a UNIX-domain client and proxies the request to your private server.

6.2.4.3 UDP: message passing

Another kind of client-server setup is one that uses not connections, but messages, or datagrams. UDP communications involve much lower overhead but also provide less reliability, since there are no promises that messages will arrive at all, let alone in order and unmangled. Still, UDP offers some advantages over TCP, including being able to broadcast or multicast to a whole bunch of destination hosts at once (usually on your local subnet). If you find yourself overly concerned about reliability and start building checks into your message system, then you probably should just use TCP to start with.

Here's a UDP program similar to the sample Internet TCP client given above. However, instead of checking one host at a time, the UDP version will check many of them asynchronously by simulating a multicast and then using select to do a timed-out wait for I/O. To do something similar with TCP, you'd have to use a different socket handle for each host.

#!/usr/bin/perl -w
use strict;
require 5.002;
use Socket;
use Sys::Hostname;

my ( $count, $hisiaddr, $hispaddr, $histime, 
     $host, $iaddr, $paddr, $port, $proto, 
     $rin, $rout, $rtime, $SECS_of_70_YEARS);

$SECS_of_70_YEARS      = 2208988800;

$iaddr = gethostbyname(hostname());
$proto = getprotobyname('udp');
$port = getservbyname('time', 'udp');
$paddr = sockaddr_in(0, $iaddr); # 0 means let kernel pick

socket(SOCKET, PF_INET, SOCK_DGRAM, $proto)   or die "socket: $!";
bind(SOCKET, $paddr)                          or die "bind: $!";

$| = 1;
printf "%-12s %8s %s\n",  "localhost", 0, scalar localtime time;
$count = 0;
for $host (@ARGV) {
    $count++;
    $hisiaddr = inet_aton($host)              or die "unknown host";
    $hispaddr = sockaddr_in($port, $hisiaddr);
    defined(send(SOCKET, 0, 0, $hispaddr))    or die "send $host: $!";
}

$rin = "";
vec($rin, fileno(SOCKET), 1) = 1;

# timeout after 10.0 seconds
while ($count && select($rout = $rin, undef, undef, 10.0)) {
    $rtime = "";
    ($hispaddr = recv(SOCKET, $rtime, 4, 0))  or die "recv: $!";
    ($port, $hisiaddr) = sockaddr_in($hispaddr);
    $host = gethostbyaddr($hisiaddr, AF_INET);
    $histime = unpack("N", $rtime) - $SECS_of_70_YEARS ;
    printf "%-12s ", $host;
    printf "%8d %s\n", $histime - time, scalar localtime($histime);
    $count--;
}