Calendar: World's famous dates1 January New Year's Day, and the National Day of Cuba, Sudan, and Hai- ti. Feast day of St Felix of Bourges, St Almachius, St William of Dijon, St Eugendus or Oyend, St Peter of Atroa, St Odilo, and St Fulgentius of Ruspe. 1785London's oldest daily paper The Daily Universal Register (re- named The Times in 1788) was first published. 1801 Italian astronomer Giuseppe Piazzi became the first person to discover an asteroid; he na- med it Ceres. 1887 Queen Victoria was proclaimed empress of India in Delhi. 1894 The Manchester Ship Canal, England, was officially opened to traffic. 1901 The Commonwealth of Australia was formed. 1909 The first payments of old-age pensions were made in Britain, with persons over 70 receiving five shillings (25p) a week. 1958 The European Community came into existence. 1959 Fidel Castro overthrew the government of Fulgencio Batista, and seized power in Cuba. 1993 Czechoslovakia split into two separate states, the Czech Republic and Slovakia; the peaceful division had been engineered in 1992. Born Lorenzo de' Medici (The Magnificent), Florentine ruler, 1449; Paul Revere, US patriot, 1735; E M Forster, Eng- lish novelist, 1879; William Fox, US movie mogul, 1879; J Edgar Hoover, director of the FBI, 1895; J D Salinger, US author, 1919; Joe Orton, English dramatist, 1933. Died William Wycherley, English dramatist, 1716; James Stuart, the Old Pretender, 1766; Heinrich Hertz, German phy- sicist, 1894; Edwin Landseer Lutyens, English architect, 1944; Maurice Chevalier, French actor and singer, 1972; L Ron Hubbard, US science-fic- tion writer and founder of Scientology, 1986. 2 January Feast day of St Seraphim of Sarov, St Basil, St Gregory Nazi- anzen, St Munchin, St Adalhard or Adelard, St Caspar of Bufalo, St Maca- rius of Alexandria, St Vincentian, and the Holy Name of Jesus. 1492 Gra- nada, the last Moorish stronghold in Spain, surrendered to the Spani- ards. 1635 Cardinal Richelieu established the Acadйmie Franзaise. 1839 French photographer Louis Daguerre took the first photograph of the mo- on. 1946 King Zog of Albania, who had been residing in England since 1939, was deposed. 1959 The Russian uncrewed spacecraft Luna I, the first rocket to pass near the moon, was launched. 1971 A barrier collap- sed at the Ibrox Park football stadium in Glasgow, crushing 66 fans to death. 1979 The trial of Sid Vicious, the Sex Pistols' singer accused of murdering his girlfriend Nancy Spungen, began in New York. Born James Wolfe, British general, 1727; George Murray, English classical scholar, 1866; Michael Tippett, English composer, 1905; Isaac Asimov, US bioche- mist and science-fiction writer, 1920; Roger Miller, US singer and com- poser, 1936; David Bailey, English photographer, 1938. Died Ovid, Roman poet, 17; Livy, Roman historian, 17; George Airy, English Astronomer Ro- yal, 1892; Emil Janning, US film actor, 1950; Tex Ritter, US stage and screen singing cowboy, 1974; Dick Emery, English comedian, 1983. 3 January Feast day of St Peter Balsam, St Bertilia of Mareuil, St Ant- herus, pope, and St Genevieve or Genovefa. 1521 Pope Leo X excommunica- ted Martin Luther. 1777 The Battle of Princeton took place in the Revo- lutionary War, in which George Washington defeated the British forces, led by Cornwallis. 1924 English explorer Howard Carter discovered the sarcophagus of Tutankhamen in the Valley of the Kings, near Luxor, Egypt. 1959 Alaska became the 49th of the United States. 1962 Pope John XXIII excommunicated Cuban prime minister Fidel Castro. 1991 The British government announced that seven Iraqi diplomats, another embassy staff member and 67 other Iraqis were being expelled from Britain. 1993 US President George Bush and Russian President Boris Yeltsin signed the se- cond Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START) in Moscow. Born Marcus Tul- lius Cicero, Roman orator and statesman, 106 BC; Clement Attlee, British statesman, 1883; J R R Tolkien, English writer, 1892; Ray Milland, US film actor, 1907; Victor Borge, Danish musician and comedian, 1909; John Thaw, British actor, 1942. Died Josiah Wedgwood, English potter, 1795; Pierre Larousse, French editor and encyclopedist, 1875; Jaroslav Hasek, Czech novelist, 1923; Conrad Hilton, US hotel magnate, 1979; Joy Adam- son, British naturalist and author, 1980. 4 January National day of Myanmar. Feast day of St Gregory of Langres, St Roger of Ellant, St Elizabeth Bayley Seton, St Pharaпdis, and St Ri- gobert of Reims. 1884 The socialist Fabian Society was founded in Lon- don, UK. 1885 The first successful surgical removal of an appendix was performed, in Iowa, US. 1936 The first pop-music chart was compiled, ba- sed on record sales published in New York in Billboard. 1944 The attack on Monte Cassino was launched by the British Fifth Army in Italy. 1972 Rose Helibron became the first woman judge in Britain at the Old Bailey, London. 1975 In Vietnam, the communist Khmer Rouge, began to besiege the Cambodian capital Phnom Penh. 1981 The Broadway show Frankenstein lost an estimated 2 million dollars, when it opened and closed on the same night. 1991 The UN Security Council voted unanimously to condemn Isra- el's treatment of the Palestinians in the occupied territories. Born Lo- uis Braille, French deviser of an alphabet for the blind, 1809; Augustus John, Welsh painter, 1878; Floyd Patterson, US boxer, 1935; Grace Bumb- ry, US opera singer, 1937; Dyan Cannon, US actress, 1939; John McLaugh- lin, British blues and jazz guitarist, 1943. Died Ralph Vaughan Willi- ams, English composer, 1958; Albert Camus, French novelist and drama- tist, 1960; T S Eliot, US poet and critic, 1965; Brian Gwynne Horrocks, British general, 1985; Christopher Isherwood, English novelist and dra- matist, 1986. 5 January Feast day of St Simeon Stylites, St Gerlac, St Dorotheus the Younger, St Apollinaris, St Convoyon, St Syncletica, and St John Nepomu- cene Neumann. 1477 Charles the Bold, King of France, was killed at the Battle of Nancy. 1896German physicist Rцntgen gave the first demonstra- tion of X-rays. 1938 Billie Holiday recorded "When You're Smiling (the Whole World Smiles with You)' in New York. 1964 In Britain, the London Underground's first automatic ticket barrier was installed, at Stamford Brook. 1964 On his tour of the Holy Land, Pope Paul VI met Patriarch At- henagoras I, the first meeting between the heads of the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches in over 500 years. 1976 French premier Giscard d'Estaing promulgated a law making French the only language permitted in advertising in France. Born Konrad Adenauer, German statesman, 1876; Stella Gibbons, English poet and novelist, 1902; Alfred Brendel, Austri- an concert pianist, 1931; Robert Duvall, US film actor, 1931; Juan Car- los, King of Spain, 1938; Diane Keaton, US film actress, 1946. Died Eng- lish king Edward the Confessor, 1066; Catherine de' Medici, Queen of France, 1589; Count Radetzky, Austrian soldier, 1858; Henry Shackleton, Irish Antarctic explorer, 1922; Calvin Coolidge, 30th US president, 1933; Amy Johnson, English aviator, 1941. 6 January Epiphany. Feast day of St John de Ribera, St Erminold, St Wiltrudis, St Guarinus. 871 English king Alfred defeated the Danes at the Battle of Ashdown. 1540 King Henry VIII was married to Anne of Cle- ves, his fourth wife. 1720 The Committee of Inquiry on the South Sea Bubble published its findings. 1838 The first public demonstration of the electric telegraph was given by its inventor, Samuel Morse. 1928 The River Thames flooded, drowning four people, and severely damaging pain- tings stored in the Tate Gallery's basement. 1945 The Battle of the Bul- ge, or Ardennes offensive, ended, with 130,000 German and 77,000 Allied casualties. 1988 La Coupole, the Parisian brasserie made famous by gene- rations of notable artists and writers who frequented it, was sold for Ј6 million to be converted into an office block. Born King Richard II of England, 1367; St Joan of Arc, 1412; Gustave Dorй, French artist and il- lustrator, 1833; Carl Sandburg, US poet, 1878; Loretta Young, US film actress, 1913; Rowan Atkinson, English actor and comedian, 1957; Kapil Dev, Indian cricketer, 1959. Died Fanny Burney, English novelist and di- arist, 1840; Gregor Mendel, Austrian monk and biologist, 1884; Theodore Roosevelt, 26th US president, 1919; Archibald Joseph Cronin, Scottish novelist, 1981; Rudolf Nureyev, Russian dancer, 1993; Dizzy Gillespie, US jazz trumpeter, 1993. 7 January Christmas Day in the Orthodox Church. Feast day of St Valen- tine, St Raymund of Peсafort, St Aldric, St Lucian of Antioch, St Tillo, St Canute Lavard, and St Reinold. 1558 Calais, the last English posses- sion on mainland France, was recaptured by the French. 1610 Italian ast- ronomer Galileo discovered Jupiter's four satellites, naming them Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. 1785 The first aerial crossing of the English Channel was made by Jean Pierre Blanchard and Dr John Jeffries, in a hot-air balloon. 1927 The London-New York telephone service began operating, a three-minute call costing Ј15. 1975 OPEC agreed to raise crude oil prices by 10%, which began a tidal wave of world economic inf- lation. 1990 The Leaning Tower of Pisa was closed to the public, as its accelerated rate of 'leaning' raised fears for the safety of its many visitors. Born Joseph Bonaparte, King of Naples, 1768; Carl Laemmle, US film producer, founder of Universal Pictures, 1867; Adolph Zukor, US film magnate, 1873; Charles Pйguy, French poet and socialist, 1873; Francis Poulenc, French composer, 1899; Gerald Durrell, British author and naturalist, 1925. Died Catherine of Aragon, first wife of Henry VI- II, 1536; Nicholas Hilliard, English miniaturist painter, 1619; Andrй Maginot, French politician, 1932; Trevor Howard, British actor, 1988; Michinomiya Hirohito, Emperor of Japan, 1989. 8 January Feast day of St Severinus of Noricum, St Severinus of Septem- peda, and St Wulsin. 1815 The Americans, under Andrew Jackson, defeated the British at the Battle of New Orleans. 1886 The Severn Railway Tunnel - Britain's longest - was opened. 1889 US inventor Herman Hollerith pa- tented his tabulator, the first device for data processing; his firm wo- uld later become one of IBM's founding companies. 1916 The final with- drawal of Allied troops from Gallipoli took place. 1921 David Lloyd Ge- orge became the first prime minister tenant at Chequers Court, Bucking- hamshire, UK. 1959 French general Charles de Gaulle became the first president of the Fifth Republic. 1993 Bosnian President Izetbegovic vi- sited the US to plead his government's case for Western military aid and intervention to halt Serbian aggression. Born Wilkie Collins, English novelist, 1824; Elvis Presley, US rock singer, 1935; Shirley Bassey, Welsh-born singer, 1937; Stephen Hawking, English physicist and mathema- tician, 1942; David Bowie, English rock singer and actor, 1947; Calvin Smith, US athlete, 1961. Died Galileo Galilei, Italian astronomer, 1642; Eli Whitney, US inventor of the cotton gin, 1825; Paul Verlaine, French poet, 1895; Zhou Enlai, Chinese leader, 1976; Gregori Maximilianovich Malenkov, Soviet leader, 1988; Terry- Thomas, English film comedy actor, 1990. 9 January Feast day of Saints Julian and Basilissa, St Berhtwald of Canterbury, St Peter of Sebastea, St Waningus or Vaneng, and St Marciana of Rusuccur. 1799 British prime minister William Pitt the Younger intro- duced income tax, at two shillings (10p) in the pound, to raise funds for the Napoleonic Wars. 1902 New York State introduced a bill to outlaw flirting in public. 1969 The supersonic airplane Concorde made its first trial flight, at Bristol. 1972 The ocean liner Queen Elizabeth was dest- royed by fire in Hong Kong harbor. 1972 British miners went on strike for the first time since 1926. 1991 US secretary of state Baker and Ira- qi foreign minister Aziz met for 61 led to reach any agreement that would forestall war in the Persian Gulf. Born Gracie Fields, English singer, 1898; George Balanchine, US choreog- rapher, 1904; Simone de Beauvoir, French novelist and critic, 1908; Ric- hard Nixon, 37th US president, 1913; Gypsy Rose Lee, US striptease ar- tist and actress, 1914; Joan Baez, US singer, 1941. Died Caroline Lucre- tia Herschel, English astronomer, 1848; Napoleon III, French emperor, 1873; Katherine Mansfield, New Zealand writer, 1923; Tommy Handley, Eng- lish radio comedian, 1949; Frederick Gibberd, British architect, 1984; Robert Mayer, British philanthropist, 1985; Peter Cook, English comedi- an, 1995. 10 January Feast day of St Marcian of Constantinople, St William of Bo- urges, St Agatho, pope, St Dermot or Diarmaid, St Peter Orseolo, and St John the Good. 1840 The penny post, whereby mail was delivered at a standard charge rather than paid for by the recipient, began in Britain. 1863 British Prime Minister Gladstone opened the first section of the London Underground Railway system, from Paddington to Farringdon Street. 1920 The Treaty of Versailles was ratified, officially ending World War I with Germany. 1920 The League of Nations held its first meeting in Ge- neva. 1926 Fritz Lang's film Metropolis was first shown, in Berlin. 1946 The first meeting of the United Nations General Assembly took place in London, UK. 1949 Vinyl records were launched by RCA (45 r.p.m.) and Co- lumbia (33.3 r.p.m.). 1992 An IRA bomb exploded in Whitehall, London, UK, 300 m/975 ft from Downing Street; the IRA threatened further attacks on the mainland. Born Michel Ney, French marshal, 1769; Barbara Hep- worth, English sculptor, 1903; Paul Henreid, Austrian actor, 1908; Gali- na Ulanova, Russian ballerina, 1910; Johnny Ray, US singer, 1927; Rod Stewart, English rock singer, 1945. Died Carolus Linnaeus, Swedish bota- nist, 1778; Samuel Colt, US gunsmith, 1862; Sinclair Lewis, US novelist, 1951; Dashiell Hammett, US detective-story writer, 1961; Coco (Gabriel- le) Chanel, French fashion designer, 1971; Anton Karas, Austrian compo- ser, 1985. 11 January Feast day of St Salvius or Sauve of Amiens, and St Theodosi- us the Cenobiarch. 1569 England's first state lottery was held; tickets were obtainable from the West Door of St Paul's Cathedral, London, UK. 1867 Benito Juarez returned to the Mexican presidency, following the withdrawal of French troops and the execution of Emperor Maximilian. 1922 Leonard Thompson became the first person to be successfully treated with insulin, at Toronto General Hospital. 1963 The first disco, called the 'Whisky-a-go-go', opened in Los Angeles, US. 1973 The Open Universi- ty awarded its first degrees. 1977 Rolling Stone Keith Richards was tri- ed in London, UK, for possession of cocaine, found in his automobile af- ter an accident, and fined Ј750. 1991 An auction of silver and paintings that had been acquired by the late Ferdinand Marcos and his wife, Imel- da, brought in a total of $20.29 million at Christie's in New York. Born Ezra Cornell, US philanthropist, 1807; Fred Archer, English jockey, 1857; Henry Gordon Selfridge, US entrepreneur and founder of the London department store, 1864; Alan Paton, South African author, 1903; Rod Tay- lor, Australian film actor, 1929; John Sessions, English actor and come- dian, 1953. Died Hans Sloane, British physician and naturalist, 1753; Thomas Hardy, English poet and novelist, 1928; Alberto Giacometti, Swiss sculptor and painter, 1966; Richmal Crompton, English author, 1969; Pad- raic Colum, Irish poet, 1972; Isidor Rabi, US physicist, 1988. 12 January Feast day of St Benedict or Benet Biscop, St Tatiana, St Margaret Bourgeoys, St Arcadius, St Caesaria, St Victorian, and St Eut- ropius. 1866 The Royal Aeronautical Society was founded in London, UK. 1875 Kwang-su was made emperor of China. 1964 The Sultan of Zanzibar was overthrown, following an uprising, and a republic proclaimed. 1971 PLO terrorist Abu Davoud, leader of the Black September group responsible for the killing of 11 Israeli athletes at the Munich Olympics, was rele- ased from prison in France. 1970 The Boeing 747 aircraft touched down at Heathrow Airport at the end of its first transatlantic flight. 1991 US Congress passed a resolution authorizing President Bush to use military power to force Iraq out of Kuwait. 1993 Sectarian violence continued for the eighth consecutive day in Bombay, India; 200 people died in nation- wide clashes. Born Johann Pestalozzi, Swiss educational reformer, 1746; John Singer Sargent, US painter, 1856; Jack London, US author, 1876; Hermann Goering, German Nazi leader, 1893; P W Botha, South African po- litician, 1916; Joe Frazier, US heavyweight boxer, 1944. Died Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, 1519; Jan Breughel the Elder, Flemish painter, 1625; Pierre de Fermat, French mathematician, 1665; Isaac Pitman, Eng- lish teacher and inventor of shorthand, 1897; Nevil Shute, English nove- list, 1960; Agatha Christie, English detective-story writer, 1976. 13 January Feast day of St Hilary of Poitiers, St Agrecius, and St Ber- no. 1893 The British Independent Labour Party was formed by Keir Hardie. 1898 French novelist Emile Zola published J'accuse/I Accuse, a pamphlet indicting the persecutors of Dreyfus. 1910 Opera was broadcast on the radio for the first time - Enrico Caruso singing from the stage of New York's Metropolitan Opera House. 1964 Capitol records released the Beat- les' first single in the US; 'I Wanna Hold Your Hand' sold one million copies in the first three weeks. 1978 NASA selected its first women ast- ronauts, 15 years after the USSR had a female astronaut orbit the Earth. 1991 Soviet troops killed 15 protesters in Vilnius, capital of Lithua- nia, in a crackdown on pro-independence forces. 1993 Former East German leader Erich Honecker, who had been awaiting trial on charges of mansla- ughter, was released from a Berlin prison because of ill health. Born Sophie Tucker, US singer and vaudeville star, 1884; Johannes Bjelke-Pe- tersen, Australian politician, 1911; Ted Willis, English dramatist, 1918; Robert Stack, US film actor, 1919; Michael Bond, English creator of the Paddington Bear stories for children, 1926. Died Edmund Spenser, English poet, 1599; George Fox, English founder of the Society of Fri- ends, 1691; Stephen Foster, US songwriter, 1864; James Joyce, Irish no- velist, 1941; Hubert Humphrey, US politician, 1978. 14 January Feast day of The Martyrs of Mount Sinai, St Barbasymas or Barbascemin, St Antony Pucci, St Datius, St Macrina the Elder, St Sava, St Felix of Nola, and St Kentigern or Mungo. 1858 Attempt on the life of Napoleon III, in Paris. 1900 Puccini's opera Tosca was first performed, in Rome. 1907 An earthquake killed over 1,000 people in Kingston, Jamai- ca, virtually destroying the capital. 1943 US President Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Churchill met at Casablanca. 1954 Baseball hero Joe DiMaggio married film star Marilyn Monroe. 1993 Amid increasingly intrusive coverage about the private lives of the British royal family, the government pledged to introduce legislation to criminalize invasions of privacy by the press. Born Henri Fantin-Latour, French painter, 1836; Albert Schweitzer, French missionary surgeon, 1875; Cecil Beaton, Bri- tish photographer and stage designer, 1904; Joseph Losey, US film direc- tor, 1909; Yukio Mishima, Japanese novelist, 1925; Trevor Nunn, British stage director, 1940; Faye Dunaway, US actress, 1941. Died Edmond Hal- ley, English astronomer, 1742; Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, French pa- inter, 1867; Lewis Carroll, English mathematician and author, 1898; Humphrey Bogart, US film actor, 1957; Peter Finch, English actor, 1977; Anaпs Nin, US novelist and diarist, 1977. 15 January Feast day of St Macarius the Elder, St Isidore of Alexand- ria, St Bonitus or Bonet, St Ita, and St John Calybites. 1559 The coro- nation of Queen Elizabeth I took place. 1759 The British Museum opened, at Montague House, Bloomsbury, London. 1797 London haberdasher James Hetherington was fined Ј50 for wearing his new creation, the top hat. 1880 The London Telephone Company published Britain's first telephone directory, listing 255 names. 1927 Captain Teddy Wakelam gave the first live rugby commentary on BBC radio of the match between Wales and Eng- land at Twickenham. 1971 The Aswan High Dam, on the Nile, financed by the USSR, was opened. 1973 President Nixon called a halt to the US's Vi- etnam offensive. 1992 The EC granted diplomatic recognition to Slovenia and Croatia, essentially recognizing the dismemberment of Yugoslavia. Born Moliиre, French dramatist, 1622; Aristotle Onassis, Greek shipow- ner, 1906; Lloyd Bridges, US film actor, 1913; Gamal Nasser, Egyptian leader, 1918; Martin Luther King, US civil-rights campaigner, 1929; Mar- garet O'Brien, US film actress, 1937. Died Emma Hamilton, English cour- tesan, mistress to Lord Nelson, 1815; Matthew B Brady, US Civil War pho- tographer, 1896; Rosa Luxemburg, German socialist, 1919; Jack Teagarden, US jazz musician, 1964; Sean MacBride, Irish politician, 1988; Sammy Cahn, US lyricist, 1993. 16 January Feast day of St Henry of Cocket, St Marcellus, pope, St Be- rard and Others, St Fursey, St Priscilla, and St Honoratus of Arles. 1547 Ivan the Terrible was crowned first tsar of Russia. 1809 The Bri- tish defeated the French at the Battle of Corunna, in the Peninsular War. 1920 The 18th Amendment to the US Constitution was ratified, prohi- biting the sale of alcoholic beverages. 1925 Leon Trotsky was dismissed as Chairman of the Revolutionary Council of the USSR. 1932 Duke Elling- ton and his Orchestra recorded 'It Don't Mean a Thing' in New York. 1970 Colonel Khaddhafi became virtual president of Libya. 1991 A US-led in- ternational force launched Operation Desert Storm on Iraq and Iraqi-oc- cupied Kuwait less than 17 hours after the expiration of the UN deadline for Iraqi withdrawal. Born Franz Brentano, German philosopher, 1838; Andrй Michelin, French tire-maker, 1853; Diana Wynyard, British actress, 1906, Alexander Knox, Canadian film actor, 1907; Ethel Merman, US singer and actress, 1909; Cliff Thorburn, snooker player, 1948. Died Lйo Deli- bes, French composer, 1891; Carole Lombard, US film actress, 1942; Artu- ro Toscanini, Italian conductor, 1957; Robert Van de Graff, US nuclear physicist, 1967; Mohammed Reza Pahlavi, former Shah of Iran, 1979; Flo- rence Desmond, British actress, 1993. 17 January Feast day of St Sabinus of Piacenza, St Julian Sabas, St An- tony the Abbot, St Geulf or Genou, St Richimir, St Sulpicius II or Sul- pice of Bourges, and Saints Speusippus, Eleusippus, and Meleusippus. 1377 The Papal See was transferred from Avignon back to Rome. 1773 Cap- tain Cook's Resolution became the first ship to cross the Antarctic Circle. 1852 The independence of the Transvaal Boers was recognized by Britain. 1912 English explorer Robert Falcon Scott reached the South Po- le; Norwegian Roald Amundsen had beaten him there by one month. 1959 Se- negal and the French Sudan joined to form the Federal State of Mali. 1966 A B-52 carrying four H-bombs collided with a refueling tanker, kil- ling eight of the crew and releasing the bombs. 1977 US double murderer Gary Gilmore became the first to be executed in the US in a decade; he chose to be executed by firing squad. 1991 US, British and Saudi forces launched a combined attack against Iraq, beginning Operation Desert Storm. 1992 An IRA bomb, placed next to a remote country road in County Tyrone, Northern Ireland, killed seven building workers and injured se- ven others. 1994 An earthquake in Los Angeles, measuring 6.6 on Richter scale, left 61 dead and thousands injured and homeless. 1995Over 3,500 people were killed when an earthquake measuring 7.2 on the Richter scale hit the city of Kobe, Japan. Born Benjamin Franklin, US statesman and scientist, 1706; David Lloyd George, English statesman, 1863; Nevil Shu- te, English novelist, 1899; Al Capone, US gangster, 1899; Muhammad Ali, US boxer, 1942; Paul Young, English singer, 1956. Died Tomaso Giovanni Albinoni, Italian composer, 1751; Quintin Hogg, English merchant and philanthropist, 1903; Francis Galton, English anthropologist and explo- rer, 1911; T W White, English writer, 1964; Ruskin Spear, British ar- tist, 1990. 18 January Feast day of St Prisca, St Peter's Chair, Rome, St Desle or Deicolus, and St Volusian. 1778 Captain Cook discovered the Sandwich Is- lands, now known as Hawaii. 1871 Wilhelm, King of Prussia from 1861, was proclaimed the first German Emperor. 1911 The first landing of an airc- raft on a ship's deck was made by US pilot Eugene Ely, in San Francisco Bay. 1919 The Versailles Peace Conference opened. 1944 The German siege of Leningrad, which began Sept 1941, was relieved. 1972 Former Rhodesian prime minister Garfield Todd and his daughter were placed under house arrest for campaigning against Rhodesian independence. 1977 In Austra- lia, a Sydney-bound train derailed, killing 82 people. Born Peter Mark Roget, English lexicographer, 1779; A A Milne, English author, 1882; Oliver Hardy, US comedian, 1892; Cary Grant, US film actor, 1904; Danny Kaye, US film actor and comedian, 1913; David Bellamy, English botanist, 1933. Died John Tyler, 10th US president, 1862; Rudyard Kipling, English author, 1936; Sydney Greenstreet, British film actor, 1954; Hugh Gaits- kell, British statesman, 1963; Cecil Beaton, English photographer and designer, 1980; George Markstein, British author, 1988. 19 January Feast day of St Canute IV of Denmark, Saints Abachum and Au- difax, St Fillan or Foelan, St Albert of Cashel, St Charles of Sezze, St Germanicus, Saints Marius and Martha, St Messalina, St Henry of Uppsala, St Nathalan, and St Wulfstan. 1764 John Wilkes was expelled from the British House of Commons for seditious libel. 1793 King Louis XVI was tried by the French Convention, found guilty of treason and sentenced to the guillotine. 1853 Verdi's opera Il Trovatore was first staged in Ro- me. 1915 More than 20 people were killed when German zeppelins bombed England for the first time; the bombs were dropped on Great Yarmouth and King's Lynn. 1942 The Japanese invaded Burma (now Myanmar). 1966 Indira Gandhi became prime minister of India. 1969 In protest against the Rus- sian invasion of 1968, Czech student Jan Palach set himself alight in Prague's Wenceslas Square. 1993 IBM announced a loss of $4.97 billion for 1992, the largest single-year loss in US corporate history. Born Ja- mes Watt, Scottish inventor, 1736; Edgar Allan Poe, US author and poet, 1809; Paul Cйzanne, French painter, 1839; Janis Joplin, US rock singer, 1943; Dolly Parton, US country singer, 1946; Stefan Edberg, Swedish ten- nis player, 1966. Died Hans Sachs, German poet and composer, 1576; Wil- liam Congreve, English dramatist, 1729; Louis Hйrold, French composer, 1833; Pierre Joseph Proudhon, French journalist and anarchist, 1865; Bhagwam Shree Rajneesh, Indian guru, 1990. 20 January Feast day of St Sebastian, St Fabian, pope, St Euthymius the Great, and St Fechin. 1265 The first English parliament met in Westmins- ter Hall, convened by the Earl of Leicester, Simon de Montfort. 1841 Hong Kong was ceded by China and occupied by the British. 1886 The Mer- sey Railway Tunnel was officially opened by the Prince of Wales. 1892 The game of basketball was first played at the YMCA in Springfield, Mas- sachusetts. 1944 The RAF dropped 2,300 tons of bombs on Berlin. 1961 John F Kennedy was inaugurated as the 35th US president, and the first Roman Catholic to hold this office. 1981 Fifty-two Americans, held hos- tage in the US embassy in Teheran for 444 days by followers of Ayatollah Khomeini, were released. 1987 Terry Waite, the Archbishop of Canterbu- ry's special envoy in the Middle East, disappeared on a peace mission in Beirut, Lebanon. Born Theobald Wolfe Tone, Irish nationalist, 1763; Ge- orge Burns, US comedian and actor, 1896; Federico Fellini, Italian film director, 1920; Patricia Neal, US film actress, 1926; Edwin Aldrin, US astronaut, 1930; Malcolm McLaren, British rock impresario, 1946. Died John Soane, English architect, 1837; John Ruskin, English art critic and writer, 1900; King George V, 1936; Johnny Weissmuller, US film actor and swimmer, 1984; Barbara Stanwyck, US film actress, 1990; Audrey Hepburn, British film actress, 1993. 21 January Feast day of St Agnes, St Fructuosus of Tarragona, St Pat- roclus of Troyes, St Alban or Bartholomew Roe, St Epiphanius of Pavia, and St Meinrad. 1793 Louis XVI, King of France, was guillotined in Place de la Rйvolution. 1846 The first issue of the Daily News, edited by Charles Dickens, was published. 1911 The first Monte Carlo automobile rally was held; it was won seven days later by French racer Henri Rougi- er. 1941 The British communist newspaper, the Daily Worker, was banned due to wartime restrictions. 1954 The world's first nuclear submarine, the USS Nautilus, was launched. 1976 Concorde inaugurated its commercial service with simultaneous take-offs, from Paris to Rio de Janeiro and from London to Bahrain. Born John Charles Fremont, US explorer, 1813; Thomas Jonathan ('Stonewall') Jackson, US Confederate general, 1824; Christian Dior, French couturier, 1905; Benny Hill, English comedian, 1924; Jack Nicklaus, US golfer, 1940; Placido Domingo, Spanish operatic tenor, 1941. Died Elisha Gray, US inventor, 1901; V I Lenin, Russian le- ader, 1924; Lytton Strachey, English critic and biographer, 1932; George Orwell, British novelist, 1950; Cecil B De Mille, US film director, 1959. 22 January Feast day of St Dominic of Sora, St Berthwald of Ramsbury, St Anastasius the Persian, St Blesilla, St Vincent Pallotti, and St Vin- cent of Saragossa. 1771 The Falkland Islands were ceded to Britain by Spain. 1879 British troops were massacred by the Zulus at Isandhlwana. 1905 Insurgent workers were fired on in St Petersburg, resulting in 'Bloody Sunday'. 1924 Ramsay MacDonald took office as Britain's first Labour prime minister. 1959 British world racing champion Mike Hawthorn was killed while driving on the Guildford bypass. 1972 The United King- dom, the Irish Republic, and Denmark joined the Common Market. 1973 US boxer George Foreman knocked out Joe Frazier in Kingston, Jamaica, beco- ming the world heavyweight boxing champion. 1992 Rebel soldiers seized the national radio station in Kinshasa, Zaire's capital, and broadcast a demand for the government's resignation. Born Ivan III (the Great), Grand Duke of Muscovy, 1440; Francis Bacon, English politician and phi- losopher, 1561; Lord Byron, English poet, 1788; D W Griffith, US film producer and director, 1875; John Hurt, English actor, 1940; George Fo- reman, US boxer, 1948. Died William Paterson, Scottish financier, 1719; David Edward Hughes, English inventor, 1900; Queen Victoria, 1901; Lyn- don B Johnson, 36th US president, 1973; Herbert Sutcliffe, English cric- keter, 1978; Arthur Bryant, British historian, 1985. 23 January Feast day of St Bernard of Vienne, Saints Clement and Agat- hangelus, St Asclas, St John the Almsgiver, St Emerentiana, St Maimbod, St Ildephonsus, and St Lufthidis. 1556 An earthquake in Shanxi Province, China, is thought to have killed some 830,000 people. 1571 The Royal Exchange in London, England, founded by financier Thomas Gresham, was opened by Queen Elizabeth I. 1849 English-born Elizabeth Blackwell gra- duated from a New York medical school to become the first woman doctor. 1924 The first Labour government was formed, under Ramsay MacDonald. 1943 The British captured Tripoli from the Germans. 1960 The US Navy bathyscaphe Trieste, designed by Dr Piccard, descended to a record depth of 10,750 m /35,820 ft in the Pacific Ocean. 1973 A ceasefire agreement was reached at peacetalks in Paris, ending the conflict between the US and North Vietnam. 1985 The proceedings of the House of Lords were tele- vized for the first time. Born Stendhal, French novelist, 1783; Edouard Manet, French painter, 1832; Sergei Mikhailovich Eisenstein, Russian film director, 1898; Alfred Denning, British judge and former Master of the Rolls, 1899; Jeanne Moreau, French actress, 1928; HSH Princess Caro- line of Monaco, 1957. Died William Pitt the Younger, British prime mi- nister, 1806; Anna Pavlova, Russian ballerina, 1931; Edvard Munch, Nor- wegian painter, 1944; Pierre Bonnard, French painter, 1947; Paul Robe- son, US actor and singer, 1976; Salvador Dali, Spanish painter and sculptor, 1989. 24 January Feast day of St Francis of Sales, St Babylas of Antioch, St Felician of Foligno, and St Macedonius the Barley-eater. 1848 James Marshall was the first to discover gold in California, at Sutter's Mill near Coloma. 1916 The US Supreme Court ruled that income tax is uncons- titutional. 1916 Conscription was introduced in Britain. 1935 Beer in cans was first sold, in Virginia, US, by the Kreuger Brewing Company. 1962 French film director Franзois Truffaut's Jules et Jim premiered in Paris. 1978 A Russian satellite crashed near Yellow Knife in Canada's Northwest Territory. 1991 More than 15,000 Allied air sorties were flown in the Gulf War, with 23 aircraft lost. Born Hadrian, Roman emperor, 76; Frederick the Great, King of Prussia, 1712; Ernest Borgnine, US film ac- tor, 1917; Desmond Morris, English zoologist and writer, 1928; Neil Dia- mond, US singer and songwriter, 1941; Nastassja Kinski, German film act- ress, 1961. Died Caligula, Roman emperor, assassinated, AD 41; Randolph Churchill, British politician, 1895; Amadeo Modigliani, Italian artist, 1920; Winston Churchill, British prime minister, 1965; George Cukor, US film director, 1983. 25 January Feast day of Saints Juventinus and Maximinimus, the Conver- sion of St Paul, St Apollo, St Artemas, St Publius, St Dwynwen, St Pop- po, and Saint Praejectus or Prix. 1533 King Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn were secretly married. 1917 The US purchased the Danish West Indies (now the Virgin Islands) for $25 million. 1924 The first Winter Olympic Games were inaugurated in Chamonix in the French Alps. 1938 Due to intense sunspot activity, the aurora borealis, or 'northern lights', were seen as far south as western Europe. 1971 Idi Amin led a coup that deposed Milton Obote and became president of Uganda. 1971 At a US court, Charles Manson and others were found guilty of murdering actress Sharon Tate and four others. 1981 Jiang Qing, Mao's widow, was tried for treason and re- ceived a death sentence, which was subsequently commuted to life impri- sonment. Born Robert Boyle, Irish physicist and chemist, 1627; Robert Burns, Scottish poet, 1759; William Somerset Maugham, English author, 1874; Virginia Woolf, English author, 1882; Wilhelm Furtwдngler, German conductor, 1886; Edvard Shevardnadze, Russian politician, 1928. Died Marcus Cocceius Nerva, Roman emperor, AD 98; Lucas Cranach the Younger, German painter, 1586; Dorothy Wordsworth, English writer, 1855; Al Capo- ne, US gangster, 1947; Ava Gardner, US film actress, 1990. 26 January National Day of Australia and of India. Feast day of St Ti- mothy, St Margaret of Hungary, St Alberic, St Paula, St Conan of Man, St Titus, St Eystein, and St Thordgith or Theorigitha of Barking. 1500 Vin- cente Yanez Pinzon discovered Brazil and claimed it for Portugal. 1841 Hong Kong was proclaimed a British sovereign territory. 1871 England's Rugby Football Union was founded in London, by 20 clubs. 1905 The Culli- nan diamond, weighing 1 the Premier Mine, near Pretoria, South Africa. 1939 In the Spanish Civil War, Franco's forces, with Italian aid, took Barcelona. 1950 India beca- me a republic within the Commonwealth. 1965 Hindi was made the official language of India. 1992 Russian President Yeltsin announced that his co- untry would stop targeting US cities with nuclear weapons. Born Douglas MacArthur, US general, 1880; Stephane Grappelli, French jazz violinist, 1908; Jimmy Van Heusen, US popular composer, 1913; Paul Newman, US film actor, 1925; Eartha Kitt, US singer, 1928; Roger Vadim, French film di- rector, 1928. Died Edward Jenner, English physician, 1823; Charles Geor- ge Gordon, British general, 1885; Nikolaus August Otto, German engineer, 1891; Edward G Robinson, US film actor, 1973; Nelson Rockefeller, US statesman, 1979; Josй Ferrer, US actor, 1992. 27 January Feast day of St Julian of Le Mans, St Marius or May, St An- gela Merici, and St Vitalian, pope. 1879 Thomas Edison patented the electric lamp. 1926 The first public demonstration of television was gi- ven by John Logie Baird, at his workshop in London, UK. 1943 The US Air Force carried out its first bombing raid on Germany. 1967 Three US ast- ronauts died in a fire which broke out aboard the spacecraft Apollo du- ring tests at Cape Kennedy. 1973 The Vietnam cease-fire agreement was signed by North Vietnam and the US. 1992 Former world boxing champion Mike Tyson went on trial for allegedly raping an 18-year-old contestant in the 1991 Miss Black America Contest. Born Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Austrian composer, 1756; Wilhelm II, Emperor of Germany, 1859; Jerome Kern, US composer, 1891; John Eccles, Australian physiologist, 1903; Mordecai Richler, Canadian novelist and dramatist, 1931; John Ogden, English pianist, 1937. Died John Audubon, US artist and naturalist, 1851; Giuseppe Verdi, Italian composer, 1901; Giovanni Verga, Italian novelist and dramatist, 1922; Carl Mannerheim, Finnish soldier and sta- tesman, 1951; Mahalia Jackson, US gospel singer, 1972; Thomas Sopwith, British aircraft designer, 1989. 28 January Feast day of St Thomas Aquinas, St Amadeus of Lausanne, St Peter Nolasco, St Peter Thomas, and St Paulinus of Aquileia. 1521 The Diet of Worms began, at which Protestant reformer Luther was declared an outlaw by the Roman Catholic church. 1807 London became the world's first city to be illuminated by gas light, when the lamps on Pall Mall were lit. 1871 In the Franco-Prussian War, Paris fell to the Prussians after a five-month siege. 1935 Iceland became the first country to int- roduce legalized abortion. 1942 The British Eighth Army retreated to El Alamein. 1986 The US space shuttle Challenger exploded shortly after lift-off from Cape Canaveral, killing five men and two women on board. 1993 Solicitors for British prime minister John Major issued writs for libel against the New Statesman and Scallywag for publishing stories de- tailing rumors of an affair between Major and Clare Latimer, a caterer. Born Henry Morton Stanley, British journalist and explorer, 1841; Augus- te Piccard, Swiss balloonist and deep-sea explorer, 1884; Ernst Lu- bitsch, US film director, 1892; Jackson Pollock, US artist, 1921; Alan Alda, US film actor and director, 1936; Mikhail Baryshnikov, Russian ballet dancer, 1948. Died Charlemagne, Holy Roman emperor, 814; Francis Drake, English buccaneer and explorer, 1596; Thomas Bodley, English scholar and diplomat, 1613; Vicente Blasco Ibбсez, Spanish writer and politician, 1928; W B Yeats, Irish poet, 1939; Klaus Fuchs, German spy, 1988. 29 January Feast day of St Sainian of Troyes, St Sulpicius 'Severus', and St Gildas the Wise. 1728 John Gay's The Beggar's Opera was first performed at Lincoln's Inn Fields Theatre, London, England. 1848 Green- wich Mean Time was adopted by Scotland. 1856 Britain's highest military decoration, the Victoria Cross, was founded by Queen Victoria. 1886 The first successful gasoline-driven automobile, built by Karl Benz, was pa- tented. 1916 Paris was bombed by German zeppelins for the first time. 1942 The BBC Radio 4 program 'Desert Island Discs', devised and presen- ted by Roy Plomley, was first broadcast. 1978 The use of environmentally damaging aerosol sprays was banned in Sweden. 1991 In the Gulf War, Iraq began its first major ground offensive into Saudi Arabia. Born Thomas Paine, English political writer and reformer, 1737; W C Fields, US film actor and comedian, 1880; Victor Mature, US film actor, 1915; Paddy Cha- yefsky, US writer, 1923; Germaine Greer, Australian feminist and author, 1939; Katharine Ross, US film actress, 1943. Died King George III, 1820; Alfred Sisley, English painter, 1899; Douglas Haig, British field mars- hal, 1928; Fritz Kreisler, US violinist, 1962; Alan Ladd, US film actor, 1964; Jimmy Durante, US comedian, 1980. 30 January Feast day of St Martina, St Bathildis, St Adelelmus or Ale- aume, St Aldegundis, St Barsimaeus, and St Hyacintha Mariscotti. 1649 The Commonwealth of England was established upon the execution of Char- les I. 1790 The first purpose-built lifeboat was launched on the River Tyne. 1889 Rudolph, crown prince of Austria, and his 17-year-old mist- ress, Baroness Marie Vetsera, were found shot in his hunting lodge at Mayerling, near Vienna. 1933 Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany. 1958 Yves Saint Laurent, aged 22, held his first major fashion show in Paris. 1972 In Londonderry, Northern Ireland, 13 civilians were shot by British troops during riots following an illegal march - known as 'Bloody Sunday'. Born Anton Chekhov, Russian dramatist and writer, 1860; Franklin D Roosevelt, 32nd US president, 1882; Gene Hackman, US film actor, 1932; Vanessa Redgrave, English actress, 1937; Boris Spass- ky, Russian chess champion, 1938; Phil Collins, English pop singer and drummer, 1951. Died King Charles I, 1649; Frank Doubleday, US publisher and editor, 1934; Orville Wright, US aviation pioneer, 1948; Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, Indian leader, assassinated, 1948; Francis Poulenc, French composer, 1963; Stanley Holloway, English actor and singer, 1982. 31 January Feast day of Saints Cyrus and John of Alexandria, St Francis Xavier Bianchi, St Adamnan of Coldingham, St Aidan or Maedoc of Ferns, St Eusebius of St Gall, St Marcella of Rome, St John Bosco, and St Ulp- hia. 1606 The executions of Winter, Rockwood, Keys, and Guy Fawkes, the Gunpowder Conspirators, took place in London, England. 1747 The first clinic specializing in the treatment of venereal diseases was opened at London Dock Hospital, England. 1858 The Great Eastern, the five-funnel- led steamship designed by Brunel, was launched at Millwall. 1876 All Na- tive American Indians were ordered to move into reservations. 1929 The USSR exiled Leon Trotsky; he found asylum in Mexico. 1958 Explorer I, the first US Earth satellite, was launched from Cape Canaveral. 1983 The wearing of seat belts in automobiles became compulsory in Britain. Born Franz Schubert, Austrian composer, 1797; Zane Grey, US novelist, 1872; Anna Pavlova, Russian ballerina, 1882; Freya Stark, English traveler and writer, 1893; Norman Mailer, US novelist, 1923; Jean Simmons, English film actress, 1929. Died Charles Edward Stuart, the Young Pretender, 1788; John Galsworthy, English novelist, 1933; Jean Giraudoux, French novelist and dramatist, 1944; C B Cochran, British theatrical producer, 1951; A A Milne, English author, 1956; Samuel Goldwyn, US film producer, 1974. 1 February Feast day of St John of the Grating, St Henry Morse, St Pio- nius, St Bride or Brigid of Kildare, St Seiriol, and St Sigebert III of Austria. 1884 The first edition of the Oxford English Dictionary was published. 1893 Thomas Edison opened the first film studio - to produce films for peepshow machines - in New Jersey, US. 1896 Puccini's opera La Bohиme was first staged in Turin. 1930 The Times published its first crossword puzzle. 1958 The United Arab Republic was formed by a union of Egypt and Syria (it was broken 1961). 1965 Medical prescriptions on the NHS became free of charge (they remained so until June 1968). 1979 Aya- tollah Khomeini returned to Iran after 16 years of exile. 1994 US talk show host Larry King interviewed Gerry Adams, President of Sinn Fein. Born Victor Herbert, US composer, 1859; John Ford, US film director, 1895; Clark Gable, US film actor, 1901; Stanley Matthews, English foot- baller, 1915; Renata Tebaldi, Italian operatic soprano, 1922; Don Ever- ly, US rock singer, 1937; Princess Stephanie of Monaco, 1966. Died Renй Descartes, French scientist and philosopher, 1650; Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, English novelist, 1851; Carlos I, King of Portugal, assassina- ted, 1908; Aritomo Yamagata, Japanese soldier and politician, 1922; Piet Mondrian, Swiss painter, 1944; Buster Keaton, US silent film comedian, 1966. 2 February Candlemas (Wives' Feast Day). Feast day of The Purification, St Joan de Lestonnac, St Adalbald of Ostrevant, and The Martyrs of Ebs- dorf. 1801 The first parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland assembled. 1852 Britain's first men's public flushing toi- lets opened on Fleet Street, London, UK. 1878 Greece declared war on Turkey. 1943 The German army surrendered to the Soviet army at Staling- rad. 1972 The British Embassy in Dublin was burned down by protesters angered by the 'Bloody Sunday' shootings in Londonderry. 1986 Women in Liechtenstein went to the polls for the first time. 1989 The USSR's mi- litary occupation of Afghanistan ended after nine years. 1990 The 30 year ban on the ANC was lifted. 1991 In Britain, a protest against the Gulf War was held in London's Hyde Park, attended by more than 40,000 people. Born Nell Gwyn, English actress and mistress of Charles II, 1650; Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Pйrigord, French statesman and dip- lomat, 1754; James Joyce, Irish author, 1882; Elaine Stritch, US act- ress, 1927; Stan Getz, US jazz saxophonist, 1927; Farrah Fawcett, US TV actress, 1946. Died Pope Clement XIII, 1769; Dmitri Ivanovich Mendele- yev, Russian chemist, 1907; Bertrand Russell, English philosopher, 1970; Sid Vicious, British punk singer, 1979; Alistair Maclean, Scottish nove- list. 3 February Feast day of St Laurence of Spoleto, St Anskar, St Ia the Virgin, St Laurence of Canterbury, St Blaise, St Werburga, and St Marga- ret 'of England'. 1488 The Portuguese navigator Bartholomeu Diaz landed at Mossal Bay in the Cape - the first European known to have landed on the southern extremity of Africa. 1913 The 16th Amendment to the US Constitution, authorising the power to impose and collect income tax, was ratified. 1919 The League of Nations held its first meeting in Pa- ris, with US President Wilson chairing. 1966 The first rocket-assisted controlled landing on the Moon was made by the Soviet space vehicle Luna IX. 1969 At the Palestinian National Congress in Cairo, Yasser Arafat was appointed leader of the PLO. 1989 South African politician P W Botha unwillingly resigned both party leadership and the presidency after suf- fering a stroke. Born Felix Mendelssohn, German composer, 1809; Gertrude Stein, US author, 1874; Alvar Aalto, Finnish architect, 1898; James Mic- hener, US novelist, 1907; Simone Weil, French writer, 1909; Frankie Va- ughan, English singer, 1928. Died John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, 1399; Richard 'Beau' Nash, British dandy and gambler, 1762; Woodrow Wil- son, 28th US president, 1924; Buddy Holly, US singer and guitarist, 1959; Boris Karloff, US film actor, 1969; John Cassavetes, US film actor and director, 1989. 4 February National Day of Sri Lanka. Feast day of St Theophilus the Penitent, St Nicholas Studites, St Andrew Corsini, bishop, St Joan of Valois, St Isidore of Pelusium, St John de Britto, St Modan, St Phileas, St Joseph of Leonessa, and St Rembert. 1861 Seven secessionist southern states formed the Confederate States of America, in Montgomery, Alabama. 1904 The Russo-Japanese War began after Japan laid siege to Port Arthur. 1928 Black US entertainer Josephine Baker's provocative performance in Munich drew protests from members of the Nazi party. 1945 Allied leaders Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met at Yalta, in the Crimea. 1968 The world's largest hovercraft was launched at Cowes, Isle of Wight. 1987 The US Stars and Stripes won the America's Cup back from Australia. 1993 Russian scientists unfurled a giant mirror in orbit and flashed a beam of sunlight across Europe during the night; observers saw it only as an instantaneous flash. Born Fernand Lйger, French painter, 1881; Jacques Prйvert, French poet and novelist, 1900; Charles Lindbergh, US aviator, 1902; Ida Lupino, English actress, 1918; Norman Wisdom, English comedi- an, 1920; Alice Cooper, US pop singer, 1948. Died Lucius Septimius Seve- rus, Roman emperor, 211; Giambattista della Porta, Italian natural phi- losopher, 1615; Robert Koldewey, German archeologist, 1925; Oliver Hea- viside, English physicist, 1925; Karen Carpenter, US singer, 1983; Libe- race, US entertainer, 1987. 5 February Feast day of St Agatha, Saints Indractus and Dominica, St Adelaide of Bellich, St Bertulph or Bertoul of Renty, St Avitus of Vien- ne, and St Vodalus or Voel. 1782 The Spanish captured Minorca from the British. 1924 The BBC time signals, or 'pips', from Greenwich Observato- ry were heard for the first time; they are broadcast every hour. 1940 Glenn Miller recorded 'Tuxedo Junction' with his orchestra. 1961 The first issue of the Sunday Telegraph was published. 1967 Due to a Musici- ans' Union ban, the Rolling Stones were not allowed to play their hit 'Let's Spend the Night Together' when they appeared on an ITV show. 1974 Patricia Hearst, granddaughter of US newspaper tycoon William R Hearst, was kidnapped by the Symbionese Liberation Army. 1982 Laker Airways col- lapsed with debts of $270 million. 1983 Expelled from Bolivia, Nazi war criminal Klaus Barbie flew to France to be tried for crimes against hu- manity. Born Robert Peel, British politician, 1788; Adlai Stevenson, US politician and ambassador, 1900; John Carradine, US film actor, 1906; William Burroughs, US novelist, 1914; Bob Marley, Jamaican reggae sin- ger, 1945; Charlotte Rampling, British actress, 1946. Died Joost van den Vondel, Dutch poet and dramatist, 1679; Thomas Carlyle, English author and historian, 1881; A B 'Banjo' Paterson, Australian poet and journa- list, 1941; George Aliss, English actor, 1946; Marianne Moore, US poet, 1972; Joseph Mankiewicz, US director and author, 1993. 6 February National Day of New Zealand. Feast day of St Paul Miki and his Companions, St Vedast or Vaast, St Hidegund, St Amand, Saints Mel and Melchu, and St Guarinus of Palestrina. 1508 Maximilian I assumed the title of Holy Roman Emperor. 1778 Britain declared war on France. 1840 The Treaty of Waitangi was signed by Great Britain and the Maori chiefs of New Zealand, granting British sovereignty. 1918 Women over 30 were granted the right to vote in Britain. 1958 An airplane carrying the Manchester United football team crashed on take-off at Munich, killing seven players. 1964 Britain and France reached an agreement on the cons- truction of a Channel Tunnel. 1968 The 10th Winter Olympic games opened in Grenoble, France. 1991 Debris from Salyut 7, a Soviet space station abandoned in 1986, re-entered the Earth's atmosphere; it was believed that most of it landed in the Atlantic Ocean. Born Christopher Marlowe, English dramatist, 1564; Queen Anne, 1665; Babe Ruth, US baseball pla- yer, 1911; Ronald Reagan, 40th US president, 1911; Zsa Zsa Gabor, Hunga- rian actress, 1920; Franзois Truffaut, French film director, 1932; Rick Astley, British pop singer, 1966. Died Lancelot 'Capability' Brown, Eng- lish landscape gardener, 1783; Carlo Goldoni, Italian dramatist, 1793; Joseph Priestley, English chemist, 1804; Gustav Klimt, Austrian painter, 1918; Marghanita Laski, English author, 1988; Arthur Ashe, US tennis player, 1993. 7 February Feast day of St Luke the Younger, St Theodore of Heraclea, St Adaucus, St Moses, St Richard, 'King of the English', and St Silvin. 1301 Edward Caernarvon (later King Edward II) became the first Prince of Wales. 1792 Austria and Prussia formed an alliance against France. 1845 The Portland Vase, a Roman cameo glass vase dating to the 1st century BC, was smashed by a drunken visitor to the British Museum. 1863 HMS Orpheus was wrecked off the New Zealand coast, with the loss of 185 li- ves. 1947 The main group of the Dead Sea Scrolls, dating to about 150 BC-AD 68, was found in caves on the W side of the Jordan River. 1974 Grenada became a fully independent state within the Commonwealth. 1990 A Soviet Communist Party Plenum voted to abolish monopoly rule. 1991 Bri- tish prime minister Major and his senior cabinet ministers escaped an apparent assassination attempt when the IRA fired three mortar shells at 10 Downing Street from a parked van. Born Thomas More, English politici- an, 1478; Philippe Buache, French cartographer, 1700; Charles Dickens, English novelist, 1812; Alfred Adler, Austrian psychoanalyst, 1870; Sinclair Lewis, US novelist, 1885; Peter Jay, British writer and broad- caster, 1937. Died William Boyce, English organist and composer, 1779; Sheridan Le Fanu, Irish writer, 1873; Adolphe Sax, Belgian inventor of the saxophone, 1894; Daniel Malan, South African statesman, 1959; Igor Vasilevich Kuchatov, Russian nuclear physicist, 1960; Jimmy Van Heusen, US composer, 1990. 8 February Feast day of St Jerome Emiliani, St John of Matha, St Cuth- man, St Stephen of Muret, St Elfleda, St Nicetius or Nizier of Besanзon, and St Meingold. 1725 Catherine I succeeded her husband, Peter the Gre- at, to become Empress of Russia. 1740 The 'Great Frost' of London, Eng- land, ended (began 25 Dec 1739). 1920 Odessa was taken by Bolshevik for- ces. 1924 The gas chamber was used in the US for the first time, in the Nevada State Prison. 1964 Beatlemania gripped the US as the Fab 4 flew into Kennedy airport. 1969 The Boeing 747, the world's largest commerci- al plane, made its first flight. 1972 A concert by Frank Zappa and the Mothers of Invention was canceled at the Albert Hall, London, UK, becau- se some of their lyrics were considered obscene. 1974 After 85 days in space, the US Skylab station returned to earth. 1993 All 132 persons aboard an Iran Air passenger jet were killed minutes after take-off when the plane collided with a military aircraft. Born John Ruskin, English writer, artist, and art critic, 1819; William Sherman, US general, 1820; Jules Verne, French novelist, 1828; Lana Turner, US film actress, 1920; Jack Lemmon, US film actor, 1925; James Dean, US film actor, 1931. Died Mary, Queen of Scots, beheaded, 1587; R B Ballantyne, Scottish writer, 1894; Peter Alexeivich Kropotkin, Russian anarchist, 1921; William Bate- son, English biologist, 1926; Max Liebermann, German painter and etcher, 1935; Del Shannon, US pop singer, 1990. 9 February Feast day of St Apollonia, St Sabinus of Canossa, St Teilo, St Alto, St Ansbert, and St Nicephorus of Antioch. 1801 The Holy Roman Empire came to an end with the signing of the Peace of Luneville between Austria and France. 1830 Explorer Charles Sturt discovered the source of the Murray River in Australia. 1872 Lieutenant Dawson's expedition in search of Dr Livingstone began. 1900 Dwight F. Davis created the Davis Cup Tennis Tournament. 1942 Soap rationing began in Britain. 1949 US film actor Robert Mitchum was sentenced to two months in prison for smo- king marijuana. 1972 The British government declared a state of emergen- cy due to the miners' strike, which was in its third month. 1991 The re- public of Lithuania held a plebiscite on independence which showed overwhelming support for secession from the USSR. Born Daniel Bernoulli, Swiss mathematician, 1700; Mrs Patrick Campbell, English actress, 1865; Alban Berg, Austrian composer, 1885; Ronald Colman, English film actor, 1891; Carole King, US singer and songwriter, 1941; Mia Farrow, US film actress, 1945. Died Nevil Maskelyne, Astronomer Royal, 1811; Fyodor Mik- hailovich Dostoevsky, Russian novelist, 1881; Sergei Vladimirovich Ily- ushin, Russian aircraft designer, 1977; Bill Haley, US rock musician, 1981; Yuri Andropov, Russian leader, 1984. 10 February Feast day of St William of Maleval, St Scholastica, St Trumwin, St Austreberta, and St Soteris. 1354 A street battle between Oxford University students and townspeople resulted in several deaths and many injuries. 1763 Canada was ceded to Britain by the Peace of Pa- ris. 1774 Andrew Becker demonstrated his practical diving suit in the River Thames. 1840 Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, both aged 20, were married in St James' Palace. 1931 New Delhi became the capital of India. 1942 The first gold disc - sprayed with gold by the record company RCA Victor - was presented to Glenn Miller for 'Chattanooga Choo Choo'. 1989 Jamaican-born Tony Robinson became Nottingham's first black sheriff. Born Harold Macmillan, British politician and publisher, 1894; Bertolt Brecht, German dramatist and poet, 1898; Robert Wagner, US actor, 1930; Boris Pasternak, Russian novelist, 1890; Mark Spitz, US swimmer, 1950; Greg Norman, Australian golfer, 1955. Died Luca della Robbia, Italian sculptor, 1482; Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin, Russian author, 1837; Wilhelm Konrad von Rцntgen, German physicist, 1923; Edgar Wallace, Eng- lish thriller writer, 1932; Billy Rose, US producer and lyricist, 1966; Sophie Tucker, US singer, 1966. 11 February Feast day of Saints Saturninus and Dativus, St Benedict of Aniane, St Gregory II, pope, St Caedmon, St Pascal, pope, St Lazarus of Milan, St Lucius of Adrianople, and St Severinus of Agaunum. 1818 Inde- pendence was proclaimed by Chile. 1858 Bernadette Soubirous, a peasant girl, allegedly had a vision of the Virgin Mary in a grotto in Lourdes. 1878 The first weekly weather report was published by the Meteorological Office. 1945 The Yalta Conference ended, at which the Allied leaders planned the final defeat of Germany and agreed on the establishment of the United Nations. 1975 Margaret Thatcher became the first woman leader of a British political party. 1990 After more than 27 years in prison, ANC president Nelson Mandela walked to freedom from a prison near Cape Town, South Africa. 1993 US President Clinton nominated Janet Reno as Attorney-General. Born Henry Fox Talbot, British photographic pioneer, 1800; Thomas Edison, US inventor, 1847; Vivian Fuchs, British Antarctic explorer, 1908; Joseph Mankiewicz, US film writer and director, 1909; Mary Quant, English fashion designer, 1934; Burt Reynolds, US film ac- tor, 1936. Died Lazaro Spallanzani, Italian physiologist and chemist, 1799; Honorй Daumier, French caricaturist, 1879; John Buchan, Canadian statesman and novelist, 1940; Sergei Mikhailovich Eisenstein, Russian film director, 1948; Silvia Plath, US poet, 1963; Lee J Cobb, US actor, 1976. 12 February Lincoln's birthday in the US. Feast day of St Julian the Hospitaller, St Ethelwald of Lindisfarne, St Antony Kauleas, St Marina or Pelagia, St Meletius, and St Ludan. 1554 Lady Jane Grey, queen of England for nine days, was executed on Tower Green for high treason. 1797 Over 1,000 French troops, led by Irish-American General William Ta- te, made an unsuccessful attempt to invade Britain, on the Welsh coast. 1818 Independence was proclaimed by Chile. 1831 Rubber galoshes first went on sale, in Boston, Massachusetts, US. 1851 Prospector Edward Harg- reaves made a discovery at Summerhill Creek, New South Wales, which set off a gold rush in Australia. 1912 China became a republic following the overthrow of the Manchu Dynasty. 1973 The first group of US prisoners of war were released from North Vietnam. 1993 The South African government and the ANC reached an agreement on a transitional 'government of natio- nal unity' in which both parties would be partners for five years. Born Thomas Campion, English composer and poet, 1567; Abraham Lincoln, 16th US president, 1809; Charles Darwin, English scientist, 1809; George Me- redith, English novelist, 1828; Marie Lloyd, English music-hall star, 1870; Franco Zeffirelli, Italian film director, 1923. Died Immanuel Kant, German philosopher, 1804; Hans Guido von Bьlow, German pianist and conductor, 1894; Lillie Langtry, English actress, 1929; Tom Keating, English painter and art forger, 1984; Henry Hathaway, US filmmaker, 1985. 13 February Feast day of St Catherine dei Ricci, St Stephen of Rieti, St Ermenilda or Ermengild, St Martinian the Hermit, St Polyeuctes of Me- litene, St Licinus or Lesin, and St Modomnoc. 1689 William of Orange and Mary ascended the throne of Great Britain as joint sovereigns. 1692 The massacre of the Macdonalds at Glencoe in Scotland was carried out by their traditional enemies, the Campbells. 1793 Britain, Prussia, Aust- ria, Holland, Spain, and Sardinia formed an alliance against France. 1867 Strauss's waltz The Blue Danube was first played publicly, in Vien- na. 1886 The James Younger gang made its first 'hit', robbing $60,000 from a bank in Missouri, US. 1917 Dutch spy Mata Hari was arrested by the French. 1960 The French tested their first atomic bomb in the Saha- ra. 1974 Russian novelist Alexander Solzhenitsyn was expelled from the USSR. Born John Hunter, Scottish surgeon and anatomist, 1728; Fyodor Chaliapin, Russian operatic bass singer, 1873; Georges Simenon, Belgian novelist, 1901; George Segal, US film actor, 1934; Oliver Reed, British film actor, 1938; Peter Gabriel, British pop musician, 1950. Died Cathe- rine Howard, fifth wife of Henry VIII, executed, 1542; Benvenuto Celli- ni, Italian sculptor and goldsmith, 1571; Cotton Mather, US colonist and writer, 1728; Richard Wagner, German composer, 1883; Georges Rouault, French painter, 1958; Jean Renoir, French film director, 1979. 14 February St Valentine's Day. Feast day of St John the Baptist of the Conception, St Antoninus of Sorrento, St Maro, St Abraham of Carrhae, St Adolf of Osnabrьck, St Auxentius, Saints Cyril and Methodius, and St Conran. 1779 Captain Cook was stabbed to death by natives in the Sand- wich Islands (now Hawaii). 1797 The naval Battle of St Vincent took pla- ce off SW Portugal, in which Captain Nelson and Admiral Jervis defeated the Spanish fleet. 1852 Great Ormond Street children's hospital, in Lon- don, UK, accepted its first patient. 1895 Oscar Wilde's The Importance of Being Earnest was first staged in London, UK. 1929 The St Valentine's Day Massacre took place in Chicago, when seven members of Bugsy Moran's gang were gunned down in a warehouse. 1945 US Air Force and RAF heavy bombers destroyed Dresden, leaving between 60-130,000 dead. 1946 The Bank of England was nationalized. 1956 At the 20th Soviet Communist Par- ty Conference, Nikita Khrushchev denounced the policies of Stalin. 1974 Russian writer Alexander Solzhenitsyn was sent into exile after publica- tion of his book, The Gulag Archipelago. 1989 The Ayatollah Khomeini is- sued a fatwa edict calling on Muslims to kill Salman Rushdie for his blasphemous novel The Satanic Verses. Born Francesco Cavalli, Italian composer, 1602; Thomas Malthus, English economist, 1766; Christopher Sholes, US inventor of the typewriter, 1819; Jack Benny, US comedian and actor, 1894; Alan Parker, British film director, 1944; Kevin Keegan, British footballer, 1951. Died King Richard II of England, 1400; Fioren- zo di Lorenzo, Italian painter, 1525; William Sherman, US general, 1891; Julian Huxley, English biologist and philosopher, 1975; P G Wodehouse, English novelist, 1975; Frederick Loewe, US composer, 1988. 15 February Feast day of St Tanco or Tatto, St Agape of Terni, St Walf- rid or Galfrid, and St Sigfrid of Vдxjц. 1882 The first shipment of fro- zen meat left New Zealand for England. 1898 The USS Maine, sent to Cuba on a goodwill tour, was struck by a mine and sank in Havana harbor, with the loss of 260 lives. 1922 The first session of the Permanent Court of International Justice in The Hague was held. 1942 Singapore surrendered to Japanese forces. 1971 Britain adopted the decimal currency system. 1974 The battle for the strategic Golan Heights between Israeli and Sy- rian forces began. 1978 Mohammad Ali lost his world heavyweight boxing title to Leon Spinks in Las Vegas. 1981 For the first time, English Fo- otball League matches were played on a Sunday. Born Pedro Menendez de Avilйs, Spanish navigator, 1519; Galileo Galilei, Italian astronomer, 1564; Jeremy Bentham, English philosopher and writer, 1748; Graham Hill, British racing driver, 1929; Claire Bloom, English actress, 1931; Jane Seymour, English actress, 1951. Died Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, German author, 1781; Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka, Russian composer, 1857; Herbert Henry Asquith, British statesman, 1928; Nat King Cole, US singer and mu- sician, 1965; Ethel Merman, US singer and actress, 1984. 16 February Feast day of St Juliana of Cumae, St Onesimus the Slave, St Gilbert of Sempringham, and Saints Elias, Jeremy, and their Companions. 1659 The first British check was written. 1887 25,000 prisoners in India were released to celebrate Queen Victoria's jubilee. 1932 Irish general election won by Fianna Fбil party, led by Eamon de Valera. 1937 US sci- entist W H Corothers obtained a patent for nylon. 1940 The British navy rescued about 300 British seamen who were held on board the German ship Altmark, in a Norwegian fjord. 1959 Fidel Castro became president of Cu- ba. 1960 The US nuclear submarine Triton set off to circumnavigate the world underwater. Born Giambattistsa Bodoni, Italian typographer, 1740; Francis Galton, English scientist and founder of eugenics, 1822; Ernst Haeckel, German naturalist and philosopher, 1834; Geraint Evans, Welsh operatic baritone, 1922; John Schlesinger, US film director, 1926; John McEnroe, US tennis player, 1959. Died Alfonso III, king of Portugal, 1279; Pierre-Paul Proudhon, French painter, 1823; Lionel Lukin, English inventor of the lifeboat, 1834; Henry Walter Bates, English naturalist and explorer, 1892; Leslie Hore-Belisha, British politician who introdu- ced driving tests and the Highway Code, 1957. 17 February Feast day of Saints Theodulus and Julian, St Evermod, St Loman, St Fintan of Cloneenagh, and St Finan of Lindisfarne. 1461 Lan- castrian forces defeated the Yorkists at the Battle of St Albans. 1859 First production of Verdi's opera Un Ballo in Maschera, in Rome. 1864 The first successful submarine torpedo attack took place when the USS Housatonic was sunk by the Confederate submarine Hunley in Charleston harbor; however, the force of the explosion was so great that the subma- rine itself was also blown up, killing all on board. 1880 An attempt was made to assassinate the Russian tsar Alexander II with a bomb at the Winter Palace, St Petersburg. 1904 First production of Puccini's Madame Butterfly, in Milan. 1958 The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) was formed in London, UK. 1968 French skier Jean-Claude Killy won three gold medals at the Winter Olympics in Grenoble. 1972 The House of Commons vo- ted in favor of Britain joining the Common Market. Born Arcangelo Corel- li, Italian composer, 1653; Thomas Malthus, English economist, 1766; Ma- rian Anderson, US operatic contralto, 1902; Yasser Arafat, Palestinian leader, 1929; Barry Humphries, Australian actor and creator of 'Dame Ed- na Everidge', 1934; Alan Bates, English actor, 1934. Died Tamerlane the Great, Mongol leader, 1405; Moliиre, French dramatist, 1673; Heinrich Heine, German poet, 1856; Geronimo, Apache leader, 1909; Graham Suther- land, English painter, 1980; Lee Strasburg, US actor, 1982; Thelonious Monk, US jazz pianist, 1982. 18 February National Day of Gambia and Nepal. Feast day of St Colman of Lindisfarne, St Flavian of Jerusalem, St Simeon of Jerusalem, St Theoto- nius, and St Helladius of Toledo. 1678 Publication of John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress. 1861 Victor Emmanuel proclaimed king of a united Italy at the first meeting of the Italian parliament. 1876 A direct te- legraph link was set up between Britain and New Zealand. 1930 US astro- nomer Clyde Tombaugh discovered the planet Pluto. 1948 After 16 years in power, the Fianna Fбil party was defeated in the Irish general electi- ons. 1965 The Gambia became an independent state within the Commonwe- alth. Born Mary Tudor, daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, 1517; Alessandro Volta, Italian scientist and inventor of the electric battery, 1745; Niccolт Paganini, Italian violinist, 1784; Andres Sego- via, Spanish classical guitarist, 1894; Helen Gurley Brown, US magazine editor, 1922; Len Deighton, English novelist, 1929. Died Martin Luther, German founder of the Reformation, 1546; Fra Angelico, Florentine pain- ter, 1455; George, Duke of Clarence, drowned in a butt of Malmsey on the orders of his brother, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, 1478; Michelangelo Buonarroti, Italian painter and sculptor, 1564; Richard Wagner, German composer, 1833; Robert Oppenheimer, US physicist, inventor of the atomic bomb, 1967. 19 February Feast day of St Boniface of Lausanne, St Barbatus, St Con- rad of Piacenza, and St Mesrop. 1800 Napoleon Bonaparte proclaimed him- self First Consul of France. 1878 US inventor Thomas Edison patented the phonograph. 1897 The Women's Institute was founded in Ontario, Canada, by Mrs Hoodless. 1906 William Kellogg established the Battle Creek Toas- ted Cornflake Company, selling breakfast cereals originally developed as a health food for psychiatric patients. 1959 Britain, Greece, and Turkey signed an agreement guaranteeing the independence of Cyprus. 1976 Ice- land broke off diplomatic relations with Britain after negotiations fai- led to produce an agreement over fishing limits in the 'cod war'. 1985 BBC TV broadcast the first episode of the soap opera EastEnders. Born Nicolaus Copernicus, Polish astronomer, 1473; David Garrick, English ac- tor and theater manager, 1717; Luigi Boccherini, Italian cellist and composer, 1743; Adelina Patti, Italian soprano, 1843; Merle Oberon, Tas- manian-born film actress, 1911; Lee Marvin, US film actor, 1924; Andrew, Duke of York, 1960. Died Georg Bьchner, German poet and dramatist, 1837; Charles Blondin, French tightrope walker, 1897; Ernst Mach, Austrian physicist, 1916; Andrй Gide, French novelist, 1951; Luigi Dallapiccola, Italian composer, 1975; Michael Powell, English documentary filmmaker, 1990. 20 February Feast day of St Eleutherius of Tournai, St Eucherius of Orlйans, St Tyranno, St Zenobius, and St Wulfric. 1811 Austria declared itself bankrupt. 1938 Anthony Eden resigned as British foreign secretary after Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain decided to negotiate with Ita- lian Fascist leader Benito Mussolini. 1947 Lord Louis Mountbatten was appointed viceroy of India, the last person to hold this office. 1962 US astronaut John Glenn orbited the Earth three times in the space capsule Friendship 7. 1985 The sale of contraceptives became legal in the Irish Republic. 1989 An army barracks at Tern Hill, Shropshire, UK, was dest- royed by an IRA bomb. Born Voltaire, French writer and philosopher, 1694; Honorй Daumier, French painter, 1808; Marie Rambert, British dan- cer and founder of the Ballet Rambert, 1888; Enzo Ferrari, Italian auto- mobile manufacturer, 1898; Robert Altman, US film director, 1925; Sidney Poitier, US film actor, 1927. Died King James I of Scotland, assassina- ted 1437; Benedict Spinoza, Dutch philosopher, 1677; Aurangzeb, last of the Mogul rulers of India, 1707; Percy Grainger, Australian-born compo- ser, 1961; Walter Winchell, US journalist, 1972; Mikhail Sholokhov, Rus- sian author, 1984. 21 February Feast day of St Robert Southwell, St Peter Damian, St Geor- ge of Amastris, and St Germanus of Granfel. 1804 British engineer Ric- hard Trevithick demonstrated the first steam engine to run on rails. 1916 The Battle of Verdun began (it continued until 16th December). 1931 The New Statesman was first published. 1960 All private businesses in Cuba nationalized by Fidel Castro. 1972 US president Richard Nixon arri- ved in Beijing on a visit intended to improve US-Chinese relations. 1989 Czech writer Vaclav Havel jailed for anti-government demonstrations. Born Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, Mexican revolutionary and dictator, 1794; John Henry Newman, English cardinal and theologian, 1801; W H Au- den, English poet, 1907; Robert Mugabe, first prime minister of Zimbab- we, 1924; Nina Simone US singer, 1934; Jilly Cooper, English novelist and journalist, 1937. Died Robert Southwell, English poet and Jesuit martyr, 1595; Jethro Tull, English agriculturalist, 1741; Nikolai Gogol, Russian novelist and dramatist, 1852; George Ellery Hale, US astronomer, 1938; Malcolm X, US Black Muslim leader, shot dead at a meeting, 1965; Howard Walter Florey, Australian pathologist who developed penicillin, 1968; Margot Fonteyn, English ballet dancer, 1991. 22 February Feast day of St Baradates, St Margaret of Cortona, and Sa- ints Thalassius and Limnaeus. 1797 Over 1,000 French troops landed at Fishguard, in South Wales, but were quickly taken prisoner. 1819 Spain ceded Florida to the US. 1879 US storekeeper F W Woolworth opened his first 'five-and-ten-cent' store in Utica, New York. 1886 The Times news- paper published a classified personal column, the first newspaper to do so. 1940 Five-year-old Tenzin Gyatso was enthroned as the 14th Dalai La- ma in Lhasa, Tibet. 1946 Dr Selman Abraham Waksman announced that he had discovered streptomycin, an antibiotic. Born George Washington, first president of the US, 1732; Arthur Schopenhauer, German philosopher, 1788; Robert Baden-Powell, English soldier and founder of the Boy Scout movement, 1857; Eric Gill, English sculptor and typographer, 1872; Luis Buсuel, Spanish film director, 1900; John Mills, English actor, 1908; Kenneth Williams, English comedy actor, 1926. Died Amerigo Vespucci, Italian navigator after whom America is named, 1512; Jean-Baptiste-Ca- mille Corot, French painter, 1875; Charles Lyell, English geologist, 1875; Stefan Zweig, Austrian writer, 1942; Elizabeth Bowen, Irish nove- list, 1973; Oskar Kokoschka, Austrian painter, 1980. 23 February Feast day of St Polycarp of Smyrna, St Dositheus, St Mil- burga, St Alexander Akimites, St Boisil, and St Willigis. 1732 First performance of Handel's Oratorio, in London, England. 1820 Discovery of the Cato Street conspiracy; following a tip-off, police arrested revolu- tionaries who planned to blow up the British Cabinet. 1836 The siege of the Alamo began, under the Mexican general Santa Anna. 1863 Lake Victo- ria was proclaimed to be the source of the River Nile by British explo- rers John Speke and J A Grant. 1898 Emile Zola was imprisoned for wri- ting his open letter J'accuse/I accuse, accusing the French government of anti-Semitism and of wrongly imprisoning the army officer Captain Alfred Dreyfus. 1919 Benito Mussolini founded the Italian Fascist Party. 1970 Guyana became an independent republic within the Commonwealth. 1981 Spanish Fascist army officers led by Lt Colonel Antonio Tejero attempted a coup in the Cortes (parliament). Born Samuel Pepys, English civil ser- vant and diarist, 1633; George Frederick Handel, German-born British composer, 1685; Victor Fleming, US film director who made The Wizard of Oz, 1883; Erich Kдstner, German children's author, 1899; Peter Fonda, US film actor, 1940. Died Joshua Reynolds, English painter, 1792; John Ke- ats, English poet, 1821; Karl Gauss, German mathematician and astrono- mer, 1855; Nellie Melba, Australian opera singer, 1931; Edward Elgar, English composer, 1994; Stan Laurel, English-born US film comedian, 1965; Adrian Boult, English conductor, 1983; Andy Warhol, US Pop artist, 1987. 24 February Feast day of St Praetextatus and Saints Montanus, Lucius, and their Companions. AD 303 Galerius Valerius Maximianus issued an edict demanding the persecution of Christians. 1582 The Gregorian Calen- dar was introduced by Pope Gregory XIII; it replaced the Julian Calen- dar, but was not adopted in Britain until 1752. 1905 The Simplon Tunnel through the Alps was completed. 1920 Nancy Astor became the first woman to address the British Parliament. 1932 Malcolm Campbell beat his own land speed record in Bluebird at Daytona Beach, US; he reached a speed of 408.88 kph/253.96 mph. 1938 Nylon toothbrush bristles were first pro- duced in the US - the first commercial use of nylon. 1946 Juan Perуn was elected president of Argentina. Born Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, 1500; Wilhelm Grimm, German philologist and, with his brother Jakob, compiler of fairy tales, 1786; Arnold Dolmetsch, Swiss maker and resto- rer of musical instruments, 1858; Michel Legrand, French composer of film music, 1932; Alain Prost, French racing driver, 1955; Dennis Water- man, English actor, 1948. Died Henry Cavendish, English physicist, 1810; Thomas Bowdler, English editor who produced 'bowdlerized' versions of great literary works such as Shakespeare and the Old Testament, 1825; Nikolai Bulganin, Soviet prime minister, 1975; Memphis Slim, US blues singer, 1987; Bobby Moore, English footballer, 1993. 25 February National Day of Kuwait. Feast day of St Ethelbert of Kent, St Walburga, St Gerland, St Louis Versiglia, St Caesarius of Nazianzen, and St Calixto Caravario. 1308 Coronation of King Edward II of England. 1570 Pope Pius V excommunicated Queen Elizabeth I. 1913 English suffra- gist Emmeline Pankhurst went on trial for a bomb attack on the home of David Lloyd George, chancellor of the Exchequer. 1939 The first Anderson air-raid shelter was built in Islington, N London, UK. 1955 HMS Ark Ro- yal was completed, the largest aircraft carrier ever built in Britain. 1964 Cassius Clay took the heavyweight boxing championship of the world, when his opponent Sonny Liston refused to fight the seventh round. 1988 US televangelist Jimmy Swaggart was suspended after it became known that he had visited a prostitute for three years. Born Carlo Goldoni, Italian playwright, 1707; Pierre-Auguste Renoir, French Impressionist painter, 1841; Enrico Caruso, Italian operatic tenor, 1873; Myra Hess, English pianist, 1890; Anthony Burgess, English novelist, 1917; David Puttnam, English film producer, 1941; George Harrison, English pop musician and former member of the Beatles, 1943. Died Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex, executed for high treason, 1601; Christopher Wren, English architect, 1723; Paul Julius von Reuter, founder of Reuters international news agency, 1899; John Tenniel, English artist and illustrator, 1914; Mark Rothko, US painter, 1970; Tennessee Williams, US dramatist, 1983. 26 February Feast day of St Alexander of Alexandria, St Porphyry of Ga- za, St Nestor of Magydus, and St Victor the Hermit. 1531 An earthquake in Lisbon, Portugal, killed 20,000 people. 1797 The first Ј note was is- sued by the Bank of England. 1815 Napoleon escaped from exile on the is- land of Elba. 1839 The first Grand National Steeplechase was run at Ain- tree. 1935 Robert Watson-Watt gave the first demonstration of Radar at Daventry, England. 1936 Adolf Hitler launched the Volkswagen ('people's automobile'), intended to compete with Ford's Model T and boost the Ger- man economy. Born Victor Hugo, French novelist and playwright, 1802; William Cody ('Buffalo Bill'), US showman, 1846; Frank Bridge, English composer and conductor, 1879; Fats Domino, US singer, 1928; Johnny Cash, US country singer, 1932. Died Roger II, king of Sicily, 1154; John Phi- lip Kemble, English actor, 1823; Richard Gatling, US inventor of the Gatling gun, 1903; Harry Lauder, Scottish music-hall comedian, 1950; Slim Gaillard, US jazz musician, 1991. 27 February Feast day of St Alnoth, St Herefrith of Louth, and St Lean- der of Seville. 1557 The first Russian Embassy opened in London, Eng- land; exactly one year later, the first trade mission arrived. 1879 US chemists Ira Remsen and Constantine Fahlberg announced their discovery of saccharin. 1881 British troops were defeated by the Boers at Majuba Hill, Transvaal. 1933 The German Reichstag (parliament building) in Ber- lin was destroyed by fire; it is believed that the Nazis were responsib- le, though they blamed the Communists. 1948 The Communist Party seized power in Czechoslovakia. 1991 The Gulf War came to an end with the libe- ration of Kuwait and the retreat of Iraqi forces. Born Constantine, Ro- man emperor, AD 274; Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, US poet, 1807; Rudolf Steiner, Austrian philosopher, 1861; John Steinbeck US novelist, 1902; Lawrence Durrell, English poet and novelist, 1912; Elizabeth Taylor, English-born US film actress, 1932. Died John Evelyn, English diarist, 1706; Alexander Borodin, Russian composer and chemist, 1887; Ivan Pav- lov, Russian psychologist, 1936; Peter Behrens, German architect, 1940; Henry Cabot Lodge, US politician and diplomat, 1985; Lilian Gish, US film actress, 1993. 28 February Feast day of St Oswald of Worcester, St Lupicinus, St Hila- rius, pope, St Proterius, and St Romanus. 1784 John Wesley, English fo- under of the Wesleyan faith, signed its deed of declaration. 1900 Relief forces under General Buller reached British troops besieged for four months at Ladysmith, Natal; Boer troops retreated. 1912 The first parac- hute jump was made, over Missouri, US. 1948 The last British troops left India. 1975 In Britain, a London underground train crashed at Moorgate station, killing 42 people. 1986 Swedish prime minister Olof Palme was shot dead as he walked home from a cinema in Stockholm. Born Renй Antoi- ne de Rйaumur, French scientist and inventor of a thermometer scale, 1683; Linus Pauling, US physicist and chemist, 1909; Stephen Spender, English poet and critic, 1909; Vincente Minelli, US film director, 1913; Peter Medawar, English immunologist, 1915; Barry McGuigan, Irish-born boxer, 1951. Died Alphonse de Lamartine, French poet, 1869; Henry James, US-born British novelist, 1916; Alfonso XIII, ex-king of Spain, 1941; Rajendra Prasad, first president of India, 1963; Henry Luce, US magazine publisher, 1967. 29 February Leap Year Day. 1880 The St Gotthard railroad tunnel through the Alps was completed, linking Italy with Switzerland. 1948 The Stern Gang blew up a train carrying British soldiers from Cairo to Haifa; 27 soldiers were killed. 1956 Pakistan became an Islamic republic. 1960 An earthquake killed about 12,000 people in Agadir, Morocco. 1968 English astronomer Jocelyn Burnell announced the discovery of the first pulsar. Born Ann Lee, English founder of the American Society of Shakers, 1736; Gioacchino Rossini, Italian composer, 1792; John Holland, US submarine inventor, 1840; Shri Morarji Desai, Indian politician, 1896; Jimmy Dor- sey, US bandleader, 1904; Mario Andretti, Italian racing driver, 1940. Died St Hilarius, 46th pope, 468; St Oswald, archbishop of York, 992; Patrick Hamilton, Scottish Protestant martyr, 1528; John Whitgift, arc- hbishop of Canterbury, 1604; John Landseer, English painter, 1852; Ro- land Culver, English actor, 1984. 1 March National Day of Wales. Feast day of St David, St Swithbert, and St Felix III, pope. 1780 Pennsylvania became the first US state to abo- lish slavery. 1845 The US annexed Texas. 1940 English actress Vivien Le- igh won an Oscar for her performance as Scarlett O'Hara in the film Gone with the Wind. 1949 US heavyweight boxing champion Joe Louis retired af- ter successfully defending his title 25 times. 1954 The US conducted its first hydrogen-bomb test at Bikini Atoll, in the Marshall Islands. 1966 The uncrewed Soviet spacecraft Venus 3 landed on Venus. 1993 At Waco, Texas, US, members of the Branch Davidian religious sect were besieged by US federal agencies. Born Frйdйric Chopin, Polish composer, 1810; Lytton Strachey, English biographer, 1880; Glenn Miller, US bandleader, 1904; David Niven, Scottish-born US film actor, 1910; Harry Belafonte, US singer, 1927; Roger Daltrey, English rock musician, singer with The Who, 1945. Died George Herbert, English poet, 1633; Girolamo Frescobal- di, Italian composer, 1643; George Grossmith, English singer and comedi- an, 1912; Jackie Coogan, US film actor who in 1921 played the child in Charlie Chaplin's The Kid, 1984. 2 March Feast day of St Chad and St Joavan. 1717 The first ballet, The Loves of Mars and Venus was performed at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, London, England. 1882 An attempt was made to assassinate Queen Victoria at Windsor. 1949 US Airforce Captain James Gallagher returned to Fort Worth, Texas, after flying non-stop around the world in 94 hours with a crew of 13 men; tanker aircraft refueled their plane four times during the flight. 1955 Severe flooding in N and W Australia killed 200 people. 1969 The French-built supersonic aircraft Concorde made its first test flight from Toulouse. 1970 Rhodesia proclaimed itself a republic. Born Thomas Bodley, founder of the Bodleian Library, Oxford, 1545; Bedrich Smetana, Czech composer, 1824; Kurt Weill, German composer who worked with Bertolt Brecht, 1900; Basil Hume, archbishop of Westminster, 1923; Mikhail Gorbachev, Soviet leader, 1931; J P R Williams, Welsh rugby pla- yer, 1949; Ian Woosnam, Welsh golfer, 1958. Died John Wesley, English founder of Methodism, 1791; Horace Walpole, novelist and historian, 1797; D H Lawrence, English novelist, 1930; Howard Carter, English Egyp- tologist who discovered Tutankhamen's tomb, 1939; Joan Greenwood, Eng- lish film actress, 1987; Randolph Scott, US film actor, 1987. 3 March National Day of Morocco. Feast day of St Ailred of Rievaulx, St Cune- gund, empress, St Marinus of Caesarea, St Non, St Winwaloe, St Anselm of Nonantola, St Artelais, St Chef, and St Emeterius. 1802 Beethoven's 'Mo- onlight Sonata' published. 1875 The first performance of Bizet's opera Carmen was staged at the Opйra Comique, Paris. 1931 'The Star-Spangled Banner' was adopted as the US national anthem. 1969 US spacecraft Apollo 9 was launched. 1985 British miners voted to go back to work after a year of striking over pit closures. 1991 Latvia and Estonia voted to se- cede from the Soviet Union. 1991 Iraqi and opposition leaders signed a peace agreement bringing the Gulf War to an end. Born George Pullman, US designer of luxury railroad carriages, 1831; Alexander Graham Bell, Scottish-born inventor of the telephone, 1847; Jean Harlow, US film act- ress, 1911; Ronald Searle, English artist and cartoonist, 1920; Miranda Richardson, English actress, 1958; Fatima Whitbread, English javelin champion, 1961. Died Robert Hooke, English physicist, 1703; Robert Adam, Scottish architect, 1792; Giandomenico Tiepolo, Italian artist, 1804; Lou Costello, US comedian, 1959; Arthur Koestler, Hungarian-born writer and supporter of euthanasia, committed suicide, 1983; Danny Kaye, US co- median, 1987. 4 March Feast day of St Peter of Cava, St Casimir of Poland, and St Ad- rian and his Companions. 1681 King Charles II granted a Royal Charter to William Penn, entitling Penn to establish a colony in North America. 1861 Abraham Lincoln was sworn in as the 16th president of the US. 1877 The Russian Imperial Ballet staged the first performance of the ballet Swan Lake in Moscow. 1882 Britain's first electric streetcars came into operation in Leytonstone, East London, UK. 1890 The Forth railroad brid- ge, Scotland was officially opened. 1968 Tennis authorities voted to ad- mit professional players to Wimbledon, previously open only to amateur players. Born Prince Henry the Navigator, Portuguese patron of explo- rers, 1394; Antonio Vivaldi, Italian composer, 1678; Patrick Moore, Eng- lish astronomer, 1928; Bernard Haitink, Dutch conductor, 1929; Miriam Makeba, South African singer, 1931; Kenny Dalgleish, Scottish footbal- ler, 1951. Died Saladin, Kurdish-born Muslim leader who defeated the Crusaders, 1193; Thomas Malory, English writer of the Morte d'Arthur, 1470; Jean-Franзois Champollion, French Egyptologist, 1832; Nikolai Go- gol, Russian novelist and playwright, 1852; William Carlos Williams, US poet, 1963. 5 March Feast day of St Piran, St Gerasimus, Saints Adrian and Eubulus, St Eusebius, St John Joseph of the Cross, St Kieran of Saighir, St Pho- cas of Antioch, and St Virgil of Arles. 1461 King Henry VI of England was deposed; he was succeeded by Edward IV. 1770 British troops killed five civilians when they fired into a crowd of demonstrators in Boston; the incident became known as the 'Boston Massacre'. 1850 English engine- er Robert Stephenson's tubular bridge was opened, linking Anglesey with mainland Wales. 1933 The Nazi Party won almost half the seats in the elections. 1936 The British fighter plane Spitfire made its first test flight from Eastleigh, Southampton. 1946 The term 'iron curtain' was first used, by Winston Churchill in a speech in Missouri, US. 1961 Alan Shepherd became the first American man in space, taking a 15 minute sub-orbital flight, 115 miles above the Earth. Born King Henry II of England, 1133; Gerardus Mercator, Flemish cartographer, 1512; Augusta Gregory, Irish playwright, 1852; Heitor Villa-Lobos, Brazilian composer, 1887; Rex Harrison, English actor, 1908; Elaine Page, English musical actress, 1952. Died Antonio Corregio, Italian painter, 1534; Friedrich Mesmer, Austrian physician and founder of mesmerism, or 'animal magne- tism', 1815; Alessandro Volta, Italian physicist, 1827; Joseph Stalin, Soviet dictator, 1953; Sergei Prokofiev, Russian composer, 1953; Tito Gobbi, Italian operatic baritone, 1984. 6 March National Day of Ghana. Feast day of Saints Baldred and Bill- frith, St Chrodegang, St Colette, St Conon, St Cyneburga, St Fridolin, and St Tibba. 1836 The 12-day siege of the Alamo ended, with only six survivors out of the original force of 155. 1899 Aspirin was patented by chemist Felix Hoffman. 1930 Clarence Birdseye's first frozen foods went on sale in Springfield, Massachusetts, US. 1957 Ghana became indepen- dent, the first British colony to do so. 1987 A cross-channel ferry left Zeebrugge, Belgium, with its bow doors open; it capsized suddenly outsi- de the harbor, killing over 180 passengers. 1988 British SAS men shot dead three IRA members in a street in Gibraltar, claiming that they had been about to attack a military parade. Born Cyrano de Bergerac, French novelist and playwright, 1619; Elizabeth Barrett Browning, English poet, 1806; Frankie Howerd, English comedian, 1922; Andrzej Wajda, Polish film director, 1926; Valentina Tereshkova, Soviet astronaut, 1937; Kiri Te Kanawa, New Zealand soprano, 1944. Died Louisa May Alcott, US novelist, 1888; Gottlieb Daimler, German motor engineer who invented the motorcyc- le, 1900; Ivor Novello, Welsh composer and actor, 1951; George Formby, English entertainer, 1961; Pearl Buck, US novelist, 1971; Donald Macle- an, English-born Soviet spy, 1984. 7 March Feast day of St Eosterwine, St Perpetua, and St Felicitas. 1838 Swedish singer Jenny Lind gave her debut performance in Der Freischutz. 1876 Alexander Graham Bell patented the telephone. 1912 French aviator Henri Seimet made the first non-stop flight from Paris to London. 1926 A radio-telephone link was established between London and New York. 1965 The first US marines landed in S. Vietnam. 1969 In Britain, the Victoria line was opened as part of London's underground railroad. 1971 Women in Switzerland achieved the right to vote and hold federal office. Born To- mas Masaryk, Czech leader, 1850; Piet Mondrian, Dutch painter, 1872; Ma- urice Ravel, French composer, 1875; Viv Richards, Antiguan cricketer, 1952; Ivan Lendl, Czech tennis player, 1960; Rik Mayall, English comedi- an, 1958. Died Antoninus Pius, Roman emperor, AD 161; St Thomas Aquinas, Christian philosopher, 1274; Herman Mankiewicz, US screenwriter, 1953; Percy Wyndham Lewis, English writer and artist, 1957; Stevie Smith, Eng- lish poet and novelist, 1971. 8 March Feast day of St Felix of Dunwich, St Duthac, St Julian of Tole- do, St Pontius of Carthage, St Veremund, St Senan, and St John of God. 1702 Anne became queen of Britain after William III died in a riding ac- cident. 1910 The first pilot's licenses were issued, to an Englishman, J T C Moore Brabazon, and a Frenchwoman, Elise Deroche. 1917 The February Revolution began in Petrograd (St (Petersburg), Russia. 1930 In India, a campaign of civil disobedience began, led by Mahatma Gandhi. 1965 3,500 US marines landed in South Vietnam. 1971 US boxer Muhammed Ali was defe- ated by Joe Frazier. Born Kenneth Grahame, Scottish author of The Wind in the Willows, 1859; Otto Hahn, German physicist and chemist, 1879; Do- uglas Hurd, British politician, 1930; James Dean, US film actor, 1931; Lynn Seymour, Canadian ballet dancer, 1939; Norman Stone, English histo- rian, 1941. Died Abraham Darby, English ironmaster, the first to use co- ke for smelting iron, 1717; Hector Berlioz, French composer, 1869; John Ericsson, Swedish-born US inventor of the screw propeller, 1889; William Howard Taft, 27th president of the US, 1930; Thomas Beecham, English conductor, 1961; Harold Lloyd, US comedian and silent-film actor, 1971. 9 March Feast day of the Forty Martyrs of Sebaste, St Frances of Rome, St Bosa, St Constantine, St Gregory of Nyssa, St Pacianus, and St Domi- nic Savio. 1074 Pope Gregory VII excommunicated all married priests. 1796 French army commander Napoleon Bonaparte married Josephine de Beau- harnais. 1831 The French Foreign Legion was founded in Algeria; its he- adquarters moved to France in 1962. 1918 The Russian capital was trans- ferred from Petrograd (St Petersburg) to Moscow. 1923 Lenin retired as Soviet leader after suffering a severe stroke; he died the following year. 1956 Archbishop Makarios of Cyprus was deported to the Seychelles to prevent his involvement in terrorist activities. 1961 Russian dog La- ika was launched into space aboard the spacecraft Sputnik 9. Born Willi- am Cobbett, author and politician, 1763; Vita Sackville-West, English novelist, 1892; Yuri Gagarin, Soviet astronaut, the first man in space, 1934; Bobby Fischer, US chess champion, 1943; Vyacheslav Molotov, Soviet politician, 1890; Bill Beaumont, English rugby player, 1952. Died David Rizzio, secretary to Mary Queen of Scots, murdered 1566; Jules Mazarin, French cardinal and politician, 1661; Frank Wedekind, German playwright, 1918; Wilhelm I of Prussia, 1888; Bob Crosby, US bandleader, 1993. 10 March Feast day of St Kessog, St John Ogilvie, St Attalas, St Hyme- lin, St Macarius of Jerusalem, St Simplicius, pope, and St Anastasia Patricia. 1801 The first census was begun in Britain. 1886 In Britain, Cruft's Dog Show was held in London for the first time - since 1859 it had been held in Newcastle. 1906 In Britain, the Bakerloo line was ope- ned on the London underground railroad. 1914 English suffragist Mary Richardson slashed Velasquez' Rokeby Venus with a meat cleaver. 1969 Ja- mes Earl Ray was sentenced to 99 years' imprisonment after pleading gu- ilty to the murder of civil-rights leader Martin Luther King. 1974 A Ja- panese soldier was discovered hiding on Lubang Island in the Philippi- nes. He was unaware that World War II had ended, and was waiting to be picked up by his own forces. Born Marcello Malpighi, Italian physiolo- gist, 1628; Tamara Karsavina, Russian ballet dancer, 1885; Arthur Honeg- ger, French composer, 1892; Bix Beiderbecke, US jazz musician and compo- ser, 1903; Prince Edward, youngest son of Queen Elizabeth II, 1964. Died Giuseppe Mazzini, Italian nationalist, 1832; Mikhail Bulgakov, Russian novelist and playwright, 1940; Jan Masaryk, Czech politician, allegedly committed suicide after Communist takeover, 1948; Konstantin Chernenko, Soviet leader, 1985; Ray Milland, US film actor, 1986. 11 March Feast day of St Oengus, St Vindician, St Sophronius of Jerusa- lem, St Constantine of Cornwall, St Eulogius of Cordova, St Aurea, St Benedict of Milan, and St Teresa Margaret Redi. 1682 The Royal Chelsea Hospital for soldiers was founded by Charles II. 1702 The first success- ful English daily newspaper, the Daily Courant was published in London. 1941 US Congress passed the Lend-Lease Bill, authorising huge loans to Britain to finance World War II. 1985 Mikhail Gorbachev became leader of the USSR. 1988 The Bank of England replaced pound notes with pound co- ins. 1990 US tennis player Jennifer Capriati, aged 13, became the youn- gest-ever finalist in a professional contest. Born Urbain Leverrier, French astronomer, 1811; Malcolm Campbell, English speed record holder, 1885; Harold Wilson, British politician, 1916; Rupert Murdoch, Australi- an newspaper proprietor, 1931; Douglas Adams, English author of The Hitch Hiker's Guide to the Galaxy, 1952; Nigel Lawson, British politici- an, 1932. Died Rolf Boldrewood, Australian author, 1915; David Beatty, British admiral, 1936; Alexander Fleming, Scottish bacteriologist who discovered penicillin, 1955; Richard Evelyn Bird, US aviator and explo- rer, 1957; Erle Stanley Gardner, US lawyer and crime writer, 1970. 12 March Feast day of St Alphege, St Bernard of Winchester, St Gregory, St Maximilian of Theveste, St Mura, St Paul Aurelian, St Theophanes, and St Pionius. 1609 Bermuda became a British colony. 1881 France made Tuni- sia a protectorate. 1904 Britain's first mainline electric train ran from Liverpool to Southport. 1912 The Girl Guides movement (later called Scouts) was founded in the US. 1930 Indian leader Mahatma Gandhi began his walk to the sea, known as the Salt March, in defiance of the British government's tax on salt and monopoly of the salt trade in India. 1938 Germany annexed Austria. 1940 The Russo-Finnish war ended with Finland signing over territory to the USSR. Born John Aubrey, English antiquary and author of Brief Lives, 1626; Thomas Arne, English composer who wrote 'Rule Britannia', 1710; Kemal Ataturk, Turkish leader, 1881; Vaslav Ni- jinsky, Russian ballet dancer, 1890; Max Wall, English actor and comedi- an, 1908; Jack Kerouac, US 'Beat' novelist and poet, 1922; Liza Minelli, US film actress and singer, 1946. Died St Gregory, pope, 604; Cesare Borgia, Italian cardinal and politician, 1507; Sun Yat-sen, Chinese re- volutionary leader, 1925; Anne Frank, Dutch Jewish diarist, died in a Nazi concentration camp, 1945; Charlie Parker, US jazz saxophonist, 1955; Eugene Ormandy, US conductor, 1985. 13 March Feast day of St Gerald of Mayo, St Mochoemoc, St Nicephorus of Constantinople, Saints Roderic and Salomon, St Ansovinus, and St Euphra- sia. 1781 German-born British astronomer William Herschel discovered the planet Uranus. 1881 Tsar Alexander II of Russia died after a bomb was thrown at him in St Petersburg. 1894 The first public striptease act was performed in Paris. 1928 450 people drowned when a dam burst near Los Angeles, US. 1930 US astronomer Clyde Tombaugh discovered the planet Pluto; its existence had been predicted 14 years earlier by US astrono- mer Percy Lowell. 1979 A Marxist coup led by Maurice Bishop took place in Grenada while Prime Minister Edward Gairy was in New York at a mee- ting of the United Nations. Born Joseph Priestley, English scientist, 1733; Percy Lowell, US astronomer, 1855; Hugh Walpole, English novelist, 1884; Henry Hathaway, US film director, 1898; Neil Sedaka, US singer and songwriter, 1939; Joe Bugner, Hungarian-born British boxer, 1950. Died Richard Burbage, English actor who built the Globe Theatre, 1619; Susan Anthony, US feminist, 1906; Stephen Benet, US poet who wrote 'John Brown's Body', 1943; Angela Brazil, English writer of stories about girls' schools, 1947; John Middleton Murry, English writer and critic, 1957. 14 March Feast day of St Matilda, St Eutychius, and St Leobinus. 1492 Queen Isabella of Castile ordered the expulsion of 150,000 Jews from Spain, unless they accepted Christian baptism. 1757 British admiral John Byng was executed by firing squad at Plymouth, for having failed to re- lieve Minorca from the French fleet. 1864 English explorer Samuel Baker was the first European to see the lake he named Lake Albert. 1885 Gil- bert and Sullivan's Mikado was first performed at the Savoy Theatre, London, UK. 1891 The submarine Monarch laid the first underwater telep- hone cable. Born Georg Telemann, German composer, 1681; Mrs Isabella Be- eton, English cooking writer, 1836; Maxim Gorky, Russian playwright and novelist, 1868; Albert Einstein, German-born Swiss physicist, 1879; Mic- hael Caine, English film actor, 1933; Jasper Carrott, English comedian, 1946. Died John Jervis, English admiral, 1823; Karl Marx, German philo- sopher, 1883; George Eastman, inventor of the Kodak camera, 1932; Niko- lai Bukharin, Russian politician, 1938; Busby Berkeley, US film choreog- rapher, 1976. 15 March Feast day of St Longinus, St Louise de Marillac, St Zacharias, pope, St Lucretia, St Matrona, and St Clement Mary Hofbauer. 1892 US in- ventor Jesse Reno patented the first escalator. 1909 US entrepreneur G S Selfridge opened Britain's first department store in Oxford Street, Lon- don, UK. 1917 Tsar Nicholas II of Russia abdicated. 1933 Nazi leader Adolf Hitler proclaimed the Third Reich in Germany; he also banned left-wing newspapers and kosher food. 1949 Clothes rationing in Britain ended. 1964 Actors Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton were married in Montreal. Born Andrew Jackson, seventh president of the US, 1767; Willi- am Lamb, Viscount Melbourne, British prime minister, 1779; John Snow, English physician who pioneered the use of ether as an anesthetic, 1813; Emil von Behring, German bacteriologist, 1854; Mike Love, US pop singer, member of the Beach Boys, 1941; Ry Cooder, US guitarist, 1947. Died Ju- lius Caesar, Roman emperor, assassinated, 44 BC; Henry Bessemer, English metallurgist who invented the Bessemer converter, 1898; Aristotle Onas- sis, Greek shipping tycoon, 1975; Rebecca West, English novelist, 1983; Tommy Cooper, English comedian, 1984; Farzad Barzoft, Iranian-born jour- nalist working for the Observer, hanged as a spy in Iraq, 1990. 16 March Feast day of St Finan Lobur, St Abraham Kidunaia, St Julian of Antioch, St Eusebia of Hamage, St Finian Lobhair, St Heribert of Colog- ne, and St Gregory Makar. 1660 The Long Parliament of England was dis- solved, after sitting for 20 years. 1802 The US Military Academy was es- tablished at West Point, New York State. 1872 The Wanderers beat the Ro- yal Engineers 1-0 in the first FA Cup Final, at Kennington Oval. 1926 The first rocket fueled by gasoline and liquid oxygen was successfully launched by US physicist Robert Goddard. 1973 In Britain, the new London Bridge was opened. Born Matthew Flinders, English navigator who explored the coast of Australia, 1774; Georg Ohm, German physicist, 1787; Leo McKern, Australian actor, 1920; Jerry Lewis, US comedy actor, 1926; Ber- nardo Bertolucci, Italian film director, 1941. Died Tiberius Claudius Nero, Roman emperor, AD 37; Aubrey Beardsley, English illustrator, 1898; Miguel Primo de Rivera, Spanish politician and dictator, 1930; Austen Chamberlain, British politician who negotiated the Locarno Pact, 1937; William Henry Beveridge, English economist who wrote the report on which the British welfare state was founded, 1963. 17 March National Day of Ireland. Feast day of St Patrick, St Withbur- ga, St Gertrude of Nivelles, St Joseph of Arimathea, St Paul of Cyprus, and the Martyrs of the Serapaeum. 1897 English-born New Zealand boxer Bob Fitzsimmons won the heavyweight title from US champion Jim Corbett. 1899 The first-ever radio distress call was sent, summoning assistance to a merchant ship aground on the Goodwin Sands, off the Kent coast of England. 1921 English doctor Marie Stopes opened The Mothers' Clinic in London, to advise women on birth-control. 1969 Golda Meir, aged 70, took office as prime minister of Israel, the first woman to do so. 1978 The oil tanker Amoco Cadiz ran aground on the coast of Brittany, spilling over 220,000 tons of crude oil and causing extensive pollution. 1990 The Bastille opera house, Paris, was opened. Born Edmund Kean, English ac- tor, 1787; Kate Greenaway, English children's book illustrator, 1846; Nat 'King' Cole, US singer, 1919; Penelope Lively, English children's novelist, 1933; Rudolf Nureyev, Russian ballet dancer, 1938; Robin Knox- Johnston, the first person to sail single-handed, non-stop around the world, 1939. Died Marcus Aurelius, Roman emperor, AD 180; Daniel Berno- ulli, Swiss mathematician and physicist 1782; Christian Doppler, Austri- an physicist, 1853; Lawrence Oates, English Antarctic explorer, a member of Scott's expedition, who walked into a blizzard, saying 'I am just go- ing outside, and may be some time', 1912; George Wilkins, Australian po- lar explorer, 1958; John Glubb (Glubb Pasha), English soldier, founder of the Arab Legion, 1986. 18 March Feast day of St Cyril of Jerusalem, St Alexander of Jerusalem, St Christian, St Edward the Martyr, St Finan of Aberdeen, St Anselm of Lucca, St Frigidian, and St Salvator of Horta. 1662 The first public bus service began operating, in Paris. 1834 Six farm laborers from Tolpudd- le, Dorset, England, were sentenced to transportation to Australia for forming a labor union. 1891 The London-Paris telephone link came into operation. 1922 Indian leader Mahatma Gandhi was jailed for six years for sedition. 1931 The first electric razors were manufactured in the US. 1965 Soviet astronaut Alexei Leonov made the first 'walk' in space. Born Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Russian composer, 1844; Rudolf Diesel, German engineer who invented the engine named for him, 1858; Neville Chamberlain, British prime minister who tried unsuccessfully to make pe- ace with Hitler, 1869; Lavrenti Beria, Soviet chief of secret police, 1889; Wilfrid Owen, English World War I poet, 1893; Robert Donat, Eng- lish film actor, 1905. Died Edward the Martyr, king of England, murdered at Corfe Castle, 978; Fra Angelico, Italian monk and painter, 1455; Ivan IV, 'the Terrible' 1584; Robert Walpole, first prime minister of Brita- in, 1745; Laurence Sterne, Irish novelist, 1768; Percy Thrower, English gardener and broadcaster, 1988. 19 March Feast day of St Alcmund, St Joseph, St John of Panaca, and St Landoald. 721 BC The first-ever recorded solar eclipse was seen from Ba- bylon. 1628 The New England Company was formed in Massachusetts Bay. 1913 Russian composer Modest Mussorgsky's opera Boris Godunov was first performed in full at the Metropolitan Opera, New York. 1932 The Sydney Harbor Bridge, New South Wales, Australia, was opened; it was the world's longest single-span arch bridge, at 503 m/1,650 ft. 1969 British troops landed on the Caribbean island of Anguilla, after the island dec- lared itself a republic; they were well received, and the island remai- ned a UK dependency. Born Georges de la Tour, French painter, 1593; To- bias Smollett, Scottish physician and author, 1721; David Livingstone, Scottish missionary and explorer, 1813; Richard Burton, English explorer and scholar, 1821; Wyatt Earp, US law officer, 1848; Sergei Diaghilev, Russian ballet impresario, 1872. Died Thomas Killigrew, English playw- right, 1683; Mary Anning, English paleontologist who discovered the first ichthyosaurus, 1847; Arthur James Balfour, British prime minister, 1930; Edgar Rice Burroughs, US novelist who wrote the Tarzan stories, 1950; Alan Badel, English actor, 1965. 20 March Feast day of St Cuthbert, St Wolfram, St Herbert of Derwentwa- ter, St Martin of Braga, St Photina and her Companions, and the Martyrs of Mar Saba. 1602 The Dutch government founded the Dutch East India Com- pany. 1806 The foundation stone of Dartmoor Prison was laid. 1815 Napo- leon returned to Paris from banishment on the island of Elba to begin his last 100 days of power that ended with defeat and exile. 1852 US author Harriet Beecher Stowe's novel Uncle Tom's Cabin was published. 1956 Tunisia achieved independence from France. 1980 Pirate radio ship Radio Caroline sank. Born Ovid, Roman poet, 43 BC; Henrik Ibsen, Norwe- gian playwright, 1828; Beniamino Gigli, Italian operatic tenor, 1890; Michael Redgrave, English actor, 1908; Vera Lynn, English singer, 1917; Madan Lal, Indian cricketer, 1951. Died King Henry IV of England, 1413; Thomas Seymour, Lord High Admiral of England, executed, 1549; Isaac New- ton, English scientist, 1727; Lajos Kossuth, Hungarian revolutionary le- ader, 1894; Ferdinand Foch, French Army marshal, 1929; Brendan Behan, Irish playwright, 1964. 21 March Feast day of St Benedict, St Enda, St Nicholas of Flue, St Fanchea, and St Serapion of Thmuis. 1933 Germany's first Nazi parliament was officially opened in a ceremony at the garrison church in Potsdam. 1946 British minister Aneurin Bevan announced the Labour government's plans for the National Health Service. 1952 Kwame Nkrumah was elected prime minister of the Gold Coast (later Ghana). 1960 The Sharpeville Massacre - in South Africa a peaceful demonstration against the pass laws ended with about 70 deaths when police fired on demonstrators. 1963 Alcatraz, the maximum-security prison in San Francisco Bay, US, was clo- sed. 1990 A demonstration in London, UK, against the poll tax became a riot, in which over 400 people were arrested. Born Johann Sebastian Bach, German composer, 1685; Paul Tortelier, French cellist, 1914; Peter Brook, English stage and film director, 1925; Michael Heseltine, British politician, 1933; Brian Clough, English footballer and manager, 1935; Ayrton Senna, Brazilian racing driver, 1960. Died Thomas Cranmer, arc- hbishop of Canterbury, burned at the stake, 1556; James Ussher, Irish theologian and archbishop of Armagh, who fixed the date of the Creation at 4004 BC, 1656; Robert Southey, English poet, 1843; Alexander Glazu- nov, Russian composer, 1936; Philip Wilson Steer, English painter, 1942; Harry H Corbett, English actor, 1982. 22 March The earliest possible date for Easter. Feast day of St Deogra- tius, St Basil of Ancyra, St Paul of Narbonne, St Nicholas Owen, and St Benvenuto of Osimo. 1824 The British parliament voted to buy 38 pictures at a cost of Ј57,000, to establish the national collection which is now housed in the National Gallery, Trafalgar Square, London, UK. 1888 The English Football League was formed. 1895 French cinema pioneers Auguste and Louis Lumiиre gave the first demonstration of celluloid film, in Pa- ris. 1942 The BBC began broadcasting in morse code to the French Resis- tance. 1945 The Arab League was founded in Cairo. 1946 Jordan achieved independence from British rule. Born Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, 1459; Anthony van Dyck, Flemish painter, 1599; Karl Malden, US film ac- tor, 1913; Marcel Marceau, French mime, 1923; Stephen Sondheim, US com- poser and lyricist, 1930; Andrew Lloyd Webber, English composer of musi- cals, 1948. Died Jean Lully, French composer, 1687; John Canton, English physicist, 1772; Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, German poet, novelist, and playwright, 1832; Thomas Hughes, English author of Tom Brown's Schoolda- ys, 1896; Mike Todd, US film producer, 1958. 23 March National Day of Pakistan. Feast day of St Gwinear, St Turibi- us, St Benedict the Hermit, St Victorian, St Ethelwald the Hermit, and St Joseph Oriol. 1765 The British parliament passed the Stamp Act, impo- sing a tax on all publications and official documents in America. 1861 In Britain, London's first streetcars began operating, in Bayswater. 1891 Goal nets, invented by Liverpudlian J A Brodie, were used for the first time in an FA Cup Final. 1919 The Italian Fascist Party was formed by Benito Mussolini. 1925 Authorities in the state of Tennessee, US, forbade the teaching of Darwinian theory in schools. 1956 Pakistan was declared an Islamic republic within the Commonwealth. 1983 US president Ronald Reagan urged support for a revolutionary defence system, so-cal- led Star Wars, to protect the US from Soviet attack. Born Juan Gris, Spanish painter, 1887; Joan Crawford, US film actress, 1904; Akira Kuro- sawa, Japanese film director, 1910; Wernher von Braun, German-born US rocket engineer, 1912; Jimmy Edwards, English comedian, 1920; Roger Ban- nister, English neurologist who, as a student, was the first person to run a mile in under four minutes (3 min 59.4 sec), 1929. Died Stendhal, French novelist, 1842; Steve Donoghue, English jockey, 1945; Raoul Dufy, French painter, 1953; Peter Lorre, Hungarian-born US film actor, 1964; Claude Auchinleck, British Field Marshal, 1981; Mike Hailwood, English champion motor cyclist, 1981. 24 March Feast day of St Dunchad, St Hildelith, St Macartan, St Alde- mar, St Simon of Trent, St William of Norwich, St Catherine of Vadstena, and St Irenaeus of Sirmeum. 1401 Tamerlane the Great captured Damascus. 1603 The crowns of England and Scotland were united when King James VI of Scotland succeeded to the English throne. 1877 The Oxford-Cambridge boat race ended in a dead heat, the only time this has happened. 1922 Only three of the 32 horses in the Grand National Steeplechase finished the race. 1942 The national loaf was introduced in Britain. 1976 Isabel Perуn, president of Argentina, was deposed. 1980 The oil tanker Exxon Valdez ran aground off Alaska, spilling over 12 million gallons of oil. Born William Morris, English socialist and craftsman, 1834; Roscoe 'Fat- ty' Arbuckle, US silent film actor, 1887; Ub Iwerks, US animator who worked with Walt Disney on the creation of Mickey Mouse, 1901; Steve McQueen, US film actor, 1930; Malcolm Muggeridge, English writer and broadcaster, 1903; Archie Gemmill, Scottish footballer, 1947. Died Eli- zabeth I, queen of England, 1603; Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, US poet, 1882; Jules Verne, French novelist, 1905; J M Synge, Irish playwright, 1909; Orde Charles Wingate, British general, 1944; Bernard, Viscount Montgomery of Alamein, British Field Marshal, 1976. 25 March National Day of Greece. Feast day of St Barontius, St Alfwold, St Dismus, St Lucy Filippini, St Hermenland, and St Margaret Clitherow. 1306 Robert I 'the Bruce' was crowned king of Scots. 1609 English explo- rer Henry Hudson set off from Amsterdam, on behalf of the Dutch East In- dia Company, in search of the North West Passage. 1807 The British par- liament abolished the slave trade. 1843 A pedestrian tunnel was opened beneath the Thames in London, UK, linking Wapping with Rotherhithe. 1876 In the first football international between Wales and Scotland, played in Glasgow, Scotland won 4-0. 1957 Six European countries (France, Bel- gium, Luxembourg, West Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands) signed the Treaty of Rome, establishing the European Community. Born Henry II, 1133; Arturo Toscanini, Italian conductor, 1867; Bйla Bartok, Hungarian composer, 1881; A J P Taylor, English historian, 1906; David Lean, Eng- lish film director, 1908; Aretha Franklin, US singer, 1942; Elton John, English pop singer and songwriter, 1947. Died Anna Seward, English nove- list who wrote Black Beauty, 1809; Nicholas Hawksmoor, English archi- tect, 1836; Frйdйric Mistral, French poet, 1914; Claude Debussy, French composer, 1918; King Faisal of Saudi Arabia, assassinated by his nephew, 1975. 26 March Feast day of St William of Norwich, St Liudger, St Felix of Trier, St Castulus of Rome, St Braulio, and St Basil of Rome. 1839 The annual rowing regatta at Henley-on-Thames was established. 1886 The fu- neral of the first person to be officially cremated in Britain took pla- ce in Woking, Surrey. 1920 The British special constables known as the Black and Tans arrived in Ireland. 1934 Driving tests were introduced in Britain. 1973 The first women were allowed on the floor of the London Stock Exchange. 1979 Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin and Egyptian president Anwar Sadat signed a peace treaty after two years of negotia- tions. Born A E Housman, English poet, 1859; Robert Frost, US poet, 1874; Pierre Boulez, French conductor and composer, 1925; Leonard Nimoy, US actor who played Mr Spock in the TV series Star Trek; James Caan, US film actor, 1939; Diana Ross, US singer, 1944. Died John Vanbrugh, Eng- lish playwright and architect, 1726; Ludwig von Beethoven, German compo- ser, 1827; Walt Whitman, US poet, 1892; Cecil Rhodes, English-born South African politician, 1902; Sarah Bernhardt, French actress, 1923; Raymond Chandler, US novelist who created private eye Philip Marlowe, 1959; Noel Coward, English playwright and entertainer, 1973. 27 March Feast day of St Rupert, St Athilda, and St John of Egypt. 1794 The United States Navy was formed. 1871 England and Scotland played the- ir first rugby international, in Edinburgh; Scotland won. 1914 The first successful blood transfusion was performed, in a Brussels hospital. 1958 Nikita Khrushchev became leader of the Soviet Union. 1964 The ten Great Train Robbers who were caught were sentenced to a total of 307 years in prison. 1977 Pan Am and KLM jumbo jets collided on the runway at Teneri- fe airport, in the Canary Islands, killing 574 people. Born Henry Royce, English automobile designer and manufacturer, 1863; Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, German architect, 1886; Gloria Swanson, US film actress, 1899; Cy- rus Vance, US secretary of state, 1917; Sarah Vaughan, US jazz singer, 1924; Mstislav Rostropovich, Russian cellist and conductor, 1927; Duncan Goodhew, English Olympic swimmer, 1957. Died King James I of Great Bri- tain, 1625; Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, Italian painter, 1770; George Gilbert Scott, English architect, 1878; James Dewar, Scottish physicist and chemist who invented the thermos flask, 1923; Arnold Bennett, Eng- lish novelist, 1931; Anthony Blunt, English art historian and Soviet spy, 1983. 28 March Feast day of St Alkelda of Middleham, St Gontran, and St Tuti- lo. 1910 The first seaplane took off near Marseille, S France. 1912 Both the Oxford and the Cambridge boats sank in the University boat race. 1930 The cities of Angora and Constantinople, in Turkey, changed their names to Ankara and Istanbul respectively. 1939 The Spanish Civil War came to an end as Madrid surrendered to General Franco. 1945 Germany dropped its last V2 bomb on Britain. 1979 The nuclear power station at Three Mile Island, Pennsylvania, suffered a meltdown in the core of one of its reactors. Born Raphael, Italian painter, 1483; St Teresa of Avi- la, Carmelite nun, 1515; King George I, 1660; Flora Robson, English act- ress, 1902; Dirk Bogarde, English actor and author, 1921; Neil Kinnock, British politician, 1942. Died James Thomas Brudenell, 7th earl of Car- digan, leader of the disastrous Charge of the Light Brigade at Balacla- va, 1868; Virginia Woolf, English novelist, 1941; Sergei Rachmaninov, Russian composer, 1943; Marc Chagall, Russian-born French painter, 1985; W C Handy, US blues composer, 1958; Dwight Eisenhower, 34th president of the US, 1969. 29 March Feast day of Saints Gwynllyw and Gwladys, St Cyril of Heliopo- lis, St Berthold, St Mark of Arethusa, St Rupert of Salzburg, Saints Jo- nas, Barachisius and Others, Saints Armogastes, Masculas, Achinimus, and Saturus. 1461 Over 28,000 people are said to have been killed in the Battle of Towton, N Yorkshire, England; the Lancastrians under Henry VI were defeated. 1871 The Albert Hall, London, was opened by Queen Victo- ria. 1886 Coca Cola went on sale in the US; it was marketed as a 'Brain Tonic' and claimed to relieve exhaustion. 1971 In the US, Lt. William Calley was sentenced to life imprisonment after being found guilty of the murder of civilians in the South Vietnamese village of My Lai in 1969. 1973 The last US troops left Vietnam. 1974 US spacecraft Mariner 10 took close-up photographs of the planet Mercury. Born Elihu Thomson, US inventor, 1853; Edwin Lutyens, English architect, 1869; William Wal- ton, English composer, 1902; Pearl Bailey, US singer, 1918; Norman Teb- bit, British politician, 1931; John Major, British prime minister, 1943. Died Charles Wesley, English evangelist and hymn-writer, 1788; Maria Fitzherbert, mistress of King George IV, 1837; Georges-Pierre Seurat, French painter, 1891; Robert Falcon Scott, Antarctic explorer, 1912; Jo- yce Cary, Irish novelist, 1957; Vera Brittain, English socialist writer, 1970. 30 March Feast day of St Osburga, St John Climacus, St Zosimus of Syra- cuse, St Ludolf, St Leonard Murialdo, and St Rieul. 1775 The British parliament passed an Act forbidding its North American colonies to trade with anyone other than Britain. 1842 Ether was first used as an anesthe- tic during surgery, by US doctor Crawford Long. 1856 The Crimean War was brought to an end by the signing of the Treaty of Paris. 1867 The US bo- ught Alaska from Russia for $7.2 million (oil had not yet been discove- red). 1893 Thomas Bayard, the US's first ambassador to Great Britain, arrived in London. 1981 In Washington DC, US, would-be assassin John Hinckley shot President Reagan in the chest. Born Francisco de Goya, Spanish painter, 1746; Paul Verlaine, French poet, 1844; Vincent Van Gogh, Dutch painter, 1853; Sean O'Casey, Irish playwright, 1880; Melanie Klein, Austrian-born British psychologist, 1882; Eric Clapton, English guitarist, 1945. Died William Hunter, Scottish anatomist and obstetrici- an, 1783; 'Beau' Brummel, English dandy, 1840; Rudolf Steiner, Austrian philosopher, 1925; Friedrich Bergius, German scientist, 1949; Lйon Blum, French politician, 1950; James Cagney, US film actor, 1986. 31 March Feast day of St Benjamin, St Balbina, St Acacius, and St Guy of Pomposa. 1282 The Sicilian Vespers, a massacre of the French in Sici- ly, begun the previous evening, ended. 1889 In Paris, the Eiffel Tower, built for the Universal Exhibition, was inaugurated. 1896 The first zip- per was patented in the US by its inventor, Whitcomb Judson. 1959 Tibe- tan Buddhist leader the Dalai Lama fled from Chinese-occupied Tibet. 1973 Racehorse Red Rum set a record of 9 min 1.9 sec for the Grand Nati- onal Steeplechase. 1986 Hampton Court Palace, near Richmond, SW London, UK, was severely damaged by a fire which broke out in the south wing. Born Renй Descartes, French philosopher and mathematician, 1596; Andrew Marvell, English poet, 1621; Franz Joseph Haydn, Austrian composer, 1732; Nikolai Gogol, Russian novelist, 1809; Robert Bunsen, German che- mist, 1811; John Fowles, English novelist, 1927. Died King Francis I of France, 1547; King Philip III of Spain, 1621; John Donne, English poet, 1631; John Constable, English painter, 1837; Charlotte Brontл, English novelist, 1855; Jesse Owens, US athlete, 1980; Enid Bagnold, English no- velist, 1981. 1 April All Fools' Day. Feast day of St Agilbert, St Gilbert of Caith- ness, St Tewdric, St Walaric, St Catharine of Palma, St Melito, St Vale- ry, St Hugh of Bonnevaux, and St Hugh of Grenoble. 1908 The British Ter- ritorial Army was founded. 1918 The Royal Air Force was formed when the Royal Naval Air Service and the Royal Flying Corps were merged. 1947 Britain's school-leaving age was raised to 15. 1948 The USSR began its blockade of Berlin. 1960 The US launched the world's first weather sa- tellite, Tiros I. 1973 In Britain, Value Added Tax (VAT) replaced Purc- hase Tax and Selective Employment Tax. Born William Harvey, English phy- sician who explained the circulation of the blood, 1578; Otto von Bis- marck, first chancellor of the German Empire, 1815; Edmond Rostand, French playwright, author of Cyrano de Bergerac, 1868; Lon Chaney, US silent-film actor, 1883; Ali McGraw, US film actress, 1938; David Gower, English cricketer, 1957. Died Eleanor of Aquitaine, queen of England and France, 1204; King Robert III of Scotland, 1406; Scott Joplin, US compo- ser, 1917; Karl Franz Josef, emperor of Austria, 1922; Max Ernst, German Surrealist painter, 1976; Marvin Gaye, US singer, 1984. 2 April Feast day of St Francis of Paola, St Mary of Egypt, St John Pa- yne, St Zosimus, St Nicetius of Lyons, and Saints Apphian and Theodosia. 1792 The first mint was established in the US. 1801 The British and Da- nish fleets met in the Battle of Copenhagen, during which Nelson put his telescope to his blind eye and ignored Admiral Parker's signal to stop fighting; the British fleet won. 1849 Britain annexed the Punjab. 1860 The first parliament of the united Italy met at Turin. 1946 The Royal Military Academy at Sandhurst, Berkshire, UK, was founded. 1979 Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin became the first Israeli leader to visit Cairo when he met Egyptian President Sadat. 1982 Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands. Born Charlemagne, king of the Franks, 742; Hans Chris- tian Andersen, Danish author, 1805; Emile Zola, French novelist, 1840; Alec Guinness, English actor, 1914; Jack Brabham, Australian racing dri- ver, 1926; Penelope Keith, English actress, 1939. Died Honorй Mirabeau, French politician and writer, 1791; Richard Cobden, British politician, 1865; Samuel Morse, US inventor, 1872; C S Forester, English novelist, 1966; Georges Pompidou, president of France, 1974. 3 April Feast day of Saints Agape, Chionia, and Irene, St Pancras of Taormina, St Richard of Chichester, St Nicetas, St Burgundofara, and St Sixtus I, pope. 1721 Ro- bert Walpole became the first prime minister of Britain. 1860 In the US, the Pony Express came into operation, with despatch riders regularly ma- king the 3,000-km /2,000-mi trip from St Joseph, Missouri to San Fran- cisco, California. 1922 In the USSR, Stalin was appointed as general secretary of the Communist Party. 1930 Haile Selassie became emperor of Ethiopia. 1987 At an auction in Geneva, jewelry belonging to the late Duchess of Windsor raised over Ј31 million. Born King Henry IV, first Lancastrian king of England, 1367; Washington Irving, US historian and short-story writer, 1783; Doris Day, US film actress and singer, 1924; Marlon Brando, US actor, 1924; Helmut Kohl, German politician, 1930; Ed- die Murphy, US film actor, 1961. Died Bartolomй Murillo, Spanish pain- ter, 1682; James Clark Ross, English explorer, 1862; Johannes Brahms, German composer, 1897; Jesse James, US outlaw, 1882; Graham Greene, Eng- lish novelist, 1991; Martha Graham, US dancer and choreographer, 1991; Dieter Plage, German wildlife photographer, 1993. 4 April National Day of Hungary. Feast day of St Ambrose, St Isidore, St Plato, St Tigernach, St Benedict the Black, and Saints Agathopus and Theodulus. 1541 Spanish Jesuit Ignatius de Loyola became the order's first superior-general. 1581 English navigator Francis Drake returned home after sailing around the world, and was knighted by Queen Elizabeth I. 1933 In the US, 73 people died when the helium-filled airship Akron crashed into the sea off the New Jersey coast. 1934 'Cat's-eye' reflec- tive studs were first used on roads near Bradford, Yorkshire, UK. 1949 The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was formed in Washington DC, US; 11 countries signed the treaty. 1958 Members of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) held the first Aldermaston March, walking from Hyde Park Corner, London, to the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment at Aldermaston, Berkshire, UK. 1968 Dr. Martin Luther King, US Black ci- vil rights leader, was assassinated in Memphis,Tennessee. Born Grinling Gibbons, Dutch-born woodcarver and sculptor, 1648; William Siemens, Ger- man-born British metallurgist and inventor, 1823; Marguerite Duras, French author, 1914; Muddy Waters, US blues singer, 1915; Maya Angelou, US author, 1928; Anthony Perkins, US actor, 1932. Died John Napier, Scottish mathematician who invented logarithms, 1617; Oliver Goldsmith, Irish playwright, 1774; Karl Benz, German automobile engineer, 1929; Andrй Michelin, French tire manufacturer, 1931; Martin Luther King, US civil-rights leader, assassinated, 1968; Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, Pakistani prime minister, executed, 1979. 5 April Feast day of St Derfel, St Vincent Ferrer, St Ethelburga of Ly- minge, St Albert of Montecorvino, and St Gerald of Sauve-Majeure. 1614 In England, the Addled Parliament began sitting, so called because it passed no Bills. 1874 Johann Strauss's opera Die Fledermaus was first performed, in Vienna. 1955 British prime minister Winston Churchill re- signed. 1964 Automatic, driverless trains began operating on the London Underground, UK. 1976 Harold Wilson resigned as prime minister of Brita- in, and was succeeded by James Callaghan. Born Thomas Hobbes, English philosopher, 1588; Elihu Yale, American merchant and founder of the col- lege named for him, 1649; Spencer Tracey, US film actor, 1900; Bette Da- vis, US film actress, 1908; Herbert von Karajan, Austrian conductor, 1908; Gregory Peck, US film actor, 1916. Died Georges Danton, French re- volutionary leader, guillotined, 1794; John Wisden, English cricketer who compiled the almanacs named for him, 1884; Douglas MacArthur, US ge- neral, 1964; Chiang Kai-shek, Chinese soldier and politician, 1975; Ho- ward Hughes, US industrialist and multi-millionaire, 1976; George Her- bert, earl of Carnarvon, British Egyptologist, 1923. 6 April Feast day of St Elstan, St Irenaeus of Sirmium, St Celestine I, pope, St Marcellinus of Carthage, St Prudentius of Troyes, St Eutychius of Constantinople, and St William of Eskilsoи. 1580 In Britain, an earth tremor damaged several London churches, including the old St Paul's Cat- hedral. 1830 Joseph Smith founded the Mormon Church in New York State. 1896 The first modern Olympic Games began in Athens. 1909 US explorer Robert Peary became the first person to reach the North Pole. 1917 The US declared war on Germany. 1965 Early Bird, the first commercial commu- nications satellite, was launched by the US. Born Gustave Moreau, French painter, 1826; Harry Houdini, US escapologist, 1874; John Betjeman, Eng- lish poet, 1906; James Watson, US biologist, 1928; Andrй Previn, US con- ductor, 1929; Paul Daniels, English magician and entertainer, 1938. Died King Richard I, 'the Lion-Hearted', 1199; Albrecht Dьrer, German pain- ter, 1528; Francis Walsingham, English politician, 1590; Jules Bordet, Belgian bacteriologist, 1961; Igor Stravinsky, Russian composer, 1971; Isaac Asimov, US scientist, 1992. 7 April Feast day of St Celsus, St Goran, St Finan Cam, St George the Younger, St Hegesippus, St Aphraates, St Henry Walpole, St Herman Jo- seph, and St John Baptist de la Salle. 1827 The first matches were sold in Stockton, England, by their inventor, chemist John Walker. 1853 Chlo- roform was used as an anesthetic on Queen Victoria, during the birth of her eighth child, Prince Leopold. 1906 A major eruption of the Italian volcano, Vesuvius, took place. 1939 Italy invaded Albania. 1948 The World Health Organization (WHO) was established. 1963 Yugoslavia's new constitution established Josip Tito as president for life. Born St Fran- cis Xavier, Spanish Jesuit missionary, 1506; William Wordsworth, English poet, 1770; Billie Holiday, US jazz singer, 1915; Ravi Shankar, Indian sitar player, 1920; David Frost, English TV presenter and interviewer, 1939; Francis Ford Coppola, US film director, 1939. Died El Greco, Gre- ek-born Spanish painter, 1614; Dick Turpin, English highwayman, 1739; Phineas T Barnum, US showman, 1891; Henry Ford, US automobile manufactu- rer, 1947; Theda Bara, US silent-film actress, 1955; Jim Clark, English racing driver, killed in a crash, 1968. 8 April Feast day of St Walter of Pontoise, St Julia Billart, St Perpe- tuus of Tours, and St Dionysus of Corinth. 1513 Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de Leon arrived in Florida and claimed it for Spain. 1838 Isambard Brunel's steamship Great Western set off on its first voyage, from Bris- tol to New York; the journey took 15 days. 1898 Lord Kitchener defeated Sudanese leader the Mahdi, at the Battle of Atbara. 1908 Herbert Asquith became prime minister of Britain. 1939 In Albania, King Zog abdicated after Italy occupied the country. 1946 The League of Nations met for the last time. 1953 British colonial authorities in Kenya sentenced Jomo Ke- nyatta to seven years' imprisonment for allegedly organizing the Mau gu- errillas. Born Adrian Boult, English conductor, 1889; Mary Pickford, US film actress, 1893; Ian Smith, Rhodesian prime minister, 1919; Eric Por- ter, English actor, 1928; Dorothy Tutin, English actress, 1931; Hywel Bennett, Welsh actor, 1944. Died Caracalla, Roman emperor, assassinated, AD 217; Domenico Donizetti, Italian composer, 1848; Elisha Graves Otis, US inventor of the safety lift, 1861; Pablo Picasso, Spanish painter, 1973; Marian Anderson, US contralto, 1993. 9 April Feast day of St Madrun, St Uramar, St Hugh of Rouen, St Gauche- rius, St Mary Cleophas, and St Waldetrudis. 1747 The Scottish Jacobite Lord Lovat was beheaded on Tower Hill, London, for high treason; he was the last man to be executed in this way in Britain. 1770 English naviga- tor James Cook arrived in Botany Bay, Australia, the first European to do so. 1865 The American Civil War came to an end when Confederate Gene- ral Robert E Lee surrendered to Union General Ulysses S Grant, at Appo- matox, Virginia. 1869 The Hudson Bay Company agreed to transfer its ter- ritory to Canada. 1917 In France, during World War I, Canadian forces began the assault on Vimy Ridge, and the Battle of Arras began. 1969 The British supersonic aircraft Concorde made its first test flight, from Bristol to Fairford, Gloucestershire, UK. Born Isambard Kingdom Brunel, English engineer, 1806; Charles Baudelaire, French poet, 1821; Paul Ro- beson, US actor and singer, 1898; Hugh Gaitskell, British politician, 1906; Jean-Paul Belmondo, French film actor, 1933; Severiano Balleste- ros, Spanish golfer, 1957. Died Edward IV of England, 1483; Lorenzo de'Medici, Florentine ruler, 1492; Francis Bacon, English philosopher and politician, 1626; Dante Gabriel Rosetti, English painter and poet, 1882; Dietrich Bonhoeffer, German theologian, 1945; Frank Lloyd Wright, US architect, 1959. 10 April Feast day of St Hedda of Peterborough, Saints Beocca and Het- hor, St Bademus, St Macarius of Ghent, St Paternus of Abdinghhof, St Michael de Sanctis, St Fulbert of Chartres, and the Martyrs under the Danes. 1633 Bananas, never seen before in England, were on sale in a London shop. 1820 The first British settlers landed at Algoa Bay, South Africa. 1841 The US newspaper New York Tribune was first published. 1849 The safety pin was patented in the US; unaware of this, a British inven- tor patented his own safety pin later the same year. 1864 Austrian Arc- hduke Maximilian was made Emperor of Mexico. 1972 Earthquakes in Iran killed over 3,000 people. Born King James V of Scotland, 1512; William Hazlitt, English essayist and critic, 1778; William Booth, English foun- der of the Salvation Army, 1829; Joseph Pulitzer, US newspaper proprie- tor who founded the Pulitzer Prize for literature and journalism, 1847; Max von Sydow, Swedish actor, 1929; Omar Sharif, Egyptian film actor, 1932. Died Joseph-Louis Lagrange, French mathematician, 1813; Algernon Charles Swinburne, English poet, 1909; Emiliano Zapata, Mexican revolu- tionary leader, shot by government troops, 1919; Auguste Lumiиre, French cinema pioneer, 1954; Evelyn Waugh, English novelist, 1966; Chris Hani, South African ANC leader, asssassinated, 1993. 11 April Feast day of St Guthlac, St Stanislas, St Godeberta, St Barsa- nuphius, St Gemma Galgani, St Isaac of Spoleto, and St Stanislaus of Cracow. 1689 The coronation of William III and Mary II took place in London. 1713 The War of the Spanish Succession was ended by the signing of the Treaty of Utrecht; France ceded Newfoundland and Gibraltar to Britain. 1814 Napoleon abdicated and was exiled to the island of Elba; Louis XVIII became king of France. 1855 Britain's first pillar boxes we- re put up in London; there were just six of them, and they were painted green. 1945 Allied troops liberated the Nazi concentration camp at Buc- henwald. 1951 US General Douglas MacArthur was relieved of his command in Korea, after a disagreement with President Truman. 1961 Nazi war cri- minal Adolf Eichmann went on trial in Jerusalem after being kidnapped from Argentina, where he had fled after World War II. Born James Parkin- son, English physician who discovered Parkinson's disease, 1755; George Canning, British prime minister, 1770; Charles Hallй, German-born Bri- tish pianist and conductor, 1819; Dean Acheson, US politician, 1893; Dan Maskell, British tennis player, coach, and commentator, 1908; Joel Grey, US actor and singer, 1933. Died Donato Bramante, Italian architect who began St Peter's, Rome, 1514; Thomas Wyatt, English soldier and conspi- rator, 1554; Luther Burbank, US botanist, 1926; Archibald McIndoe, New Zealand-born plastic surgeon, 1960; John O'Hara, US novelist, 1970; Ers- kine Caldwell, US novelist, 1987. 12 April Feast day of St Zeno of Verona, St Julius I, pope, St Sabas the Goth and Others, and St Alferius. 1204 Soldiers taking part in the Fourth Crusade under the direction of the Doge of Venice, captured the Byzantine city of Constantinople. 1606 The Union Jack was adopted as the official flag of England. 1782 The British fleet under Admiral Rodney defeated the French fleet in the Battle of the Saints in the West Indi- es. 1861 The American Civil War began when Confederate troops fired on the Federal garrison at Fort Sumter. 1961 Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to orbit the Earth. 1981 The US space shuttle Columbia was launched from Cape Canaveral. Born Henry Clay, American po- litician, 1777; Lionel Hampton, US bandleader, 1913; Raymond Barre, French politician, 1924; Alan Ayckbourn, English playwright, 1939; Bobby Moore, English footballer, 1941. Died William Kent, English architect and landscape gardener, 1748; Fyodor Chaliapin, Russian operatic bass, 1938; Franklin Delano Roosevelt, 32nd president of the US, 1945; Josep- hine Baker, US-born French singer and dancer, 1975; Alan Paton, South African novelist and politician, 1988. 13 April Feast day of St Guinoch, St Martin I, pope, Saints Carpus, Pa- pylus, and Agathonice, St Hermenegild, and St Martius. 1598 Henry IV of France issued the Edict of Nantes, giving religious freedom to the Hugu- enots. 1668 English poet John Dryden became the first Poet Laureate. 1829 The British Parliament passed the Catholic Emancipation Act, lif- ting restrictions imposed on Catholics at the time of Henry VIII. 1919 The Amritsar Massacre took place in the Punjab, India; British troops fired into a crowd of 10,000 which had gathered to protest at the arrest of two Indian Congress Party leaders, 379 people were killed and 1,200 wounded. 1936 Luton Town footballer Joe Payne set a goal-scoring record when he scored ten goals in one match against Bristol Rovers. 1980 Spa- nish golfer Severiano Ballesteros became the youngest-ever winner of the US Masters Tournament. Born Thomas Jefferson, 3rd president of the US, 1743; Richard Trevithick, English engineer, 1771; F W Woolworth, US fo- under of chain stores, 1852; John Braine, English novelist, 1922; Seamus Heaney, Irish poet, 1939; Gary Kasparov, Russian chess player, 1963. Di- ed Boris Godunov, Russian tsar, 1605; Jean de La Fontaine, French writer of fables, 1695; William Orchardson, Scottish painter, 1910; Abdul Salam Arif, president of Iraq, 1966; Christmas Humphreys, English judge, 1983. 14 April Feast day of St Tiburtius and Companions, St Caradoc, St Lam- bert of Lyons, St Ardalion, Saints Anthony, John, and Eustace, St Bene- zet, St John of Vilna, St Bernard of Tiron or Abbeville, and the Martyrs of Lithuania. 1471 The Battle of Barnet took place in the Wars of the Roses, in which Yorkist forces defeated the Lancastrians, leading to the restoration of Edward IV. 1828 US lexicographer Noah Webster published his American Dictionary of the English Language. 1865 US President Abra- ham Lincoln was assassinated. 1929 The first Monaco Grand Prix was held in Monte Carlo. 1931 Spanish King Alfonso XIII fled the country after Republican successes in elections. 1931 The British Ministry of Trans- port published the first Highway Code. 1983 The first cordless telephone went on sale in Britain. Born Christiaan Huygens, Dutch astronomer and physicist, 1629; Peter Behrens, German architect and designer, 1868; John Gielgud, English actor, 1904; Franзois Duvalier, Haitian dictator, 1907; Rod Steiger, US film actor, 1925; John Roberts, English historian, 1928. Died Richard Neville, 'the Kingmaker', killed at the Battle of Barnet, 1471; Thomas Otway, English playwright, 1685; George Frederick Handel, English composer, 1759; Lazarus Zamenhof, Polish linguist who devised Esperanto, 1917; Ernest Bevin, British politician and labor-uni- on leader, 1951; Simone de Beauvoir, French feminist writer, 1986. 15 April Feast day of St Ruadhan, St Paternus of Wales, St Hunna, and Saints Anastasia and Basilissa. 1755 English lexicographer Dr Samuel Johnson published his Dictionary; he had taken eight years to compile it. 1797 Sailors at Spithead, near Portsmouth, mutinied, demanding bet- ter conditions; the British government met their demands. 1891 US inven- tor Thomas Edison gave a public demonstration of his kinetoscope, a mo- ving-picture machine. 1912 Over 1,500 people died when the passenger li- ner Titanic sank after colliding with an iceberg on its first voyage. 1922 Insulin was discovered by Canadian physiologist Frederick Banting and J J R Macleod. 1942 The George Cross was awarded to the island of Malta, for bravery under heavy attack by German and Italian forces du- ring World War II. Born Guru Nanak, founder of Sikhism, 1469; Henry Ja- mes, US-born British novelist, 1843; Joe Davis, English snooker player, 1901; Neville Marriner, British conductor, 1924; Jeffrey Archer, English politician and novelist, 1940; Emma Thompson, English actress, 1959. Di- ed Mme de Pompadour, mistress of French King Louis XV, 1764; Abraham Lincoln, 16th president of the US, assassinated 1865; Matthew Arnold, English poet and educator, 1888; Father Damien, Belgian missionary, 1889; Jean-Paul Sartre, French philosopher and writer, 1980; Arthur Lo- we, English actor, 1982. 16 April Feast day of St Bernadette, St Magnus, St Paternus of Avranc- hes, St Encratis, St Fructuosus Braga, St Turibius of Astorga, St Drogo, St Joseph Benedict Labre, and St Optatus and the Martyrs of Saragossa. 1746 Charles Edward Stuart (Bonnie Prince Charlie) was defeated at the Battle of Culloden. 1883 Paul Kruger became president of South Africa. 1912 US pilot Harriet Quimby became the first woman to fly across the English Channel. 1951 Seventy-five people died when the British submari- ne Affray sank in the English Channel. 1954 The first stock-car race me- eting was held in Britain, at the Old Kent Road stadium, London. 1972 The US spacecraft Apollo 16 was launched. Born John Franklin, English Arctic explorer who discovered the Northwest Passage, 1786; Wilbur Wright, US aviator, 1867; Charlie Chaplin, English-born film actor and director, 1889; Spike Milligan, English comedian and writer, 1918; Peter Ustinov, English actor and novelist, 1921; Kingsley Amis, English nove- list, 1922. Died Aphra Behn, English playwright, 1689; Francisco de Go- ya, Spanish painter, 1828; Marie Tussaud, French wax-modeler, 1850; St Bernadette of Lourdes, French saint, 1879; Samuel Smiles, Scottish soci- al reformer and author of Self-Help, 1904; David Lean, English film di- rector, 1991. 17 April National Day of Syria. Feast day of St Donnan, St Aybert, St Stephen Harding, St Innocent of Tortona, St Mappalicus and Others, and St Robert of Chaise-Dieu. 1521 The Diet of Worms excommunicated German Church reformer Martin Luther. 1961 US troops and Cuban exiles failed in their attempt to invade Cuba at the Bay of Pigs. 1956 The first Premium Bonds were issued in Britain. 1957 Archbishop Makarios returned to Gree- ce after over a year in exile in the Seychelles. 1969 The age at which a person is eligible to vote in Britain was lowered from 21 to 18. 1975 The Cambodian communist Khmer Rouge captured the capital, Pnomh Penh. 1980 Southern Rhodesia became Zimbabwe. Born John Ford, English playw- right, 1586; Leonard Woolley, English archeologist, 1880; Nikita Khrush- chev, Soviet leader, 1894; Thornton Wilder, US novelist, 1897; Sirimavo Bandaranaike, first woman prime minister of Sri Lanka, 1916; Lindsay An- derson, British film and stage director, 1923. Died Mme de Sйvignй, French writer, 1696; Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor, 1711; Benjamin Frank- lin, American scientist and politician, 1790; Kawabata Yasunari, Japane- se novelist, 1972; Scott Brady, US actor, 1985; Turgut Ozal, Turkish po- litician, 1993. 18 April Feast day of St Laserian, St Galdinus, St Idesbald, St Apollo- nius, and Saints Eleutherius and Anthia. 1775 At the outbreak of the Re- volutionary War, US patriot Paul Revere rode from Charleston to Lexing- ton, warning people as he went that British troops were on their way. 1881 The Natural History Museum in South Kensington, London, UK, was opened. 1906 An earthquake and the fire that followed it destroyed most of the city of San Francisco, and killed over 450 people. 1934 The first launderette, called a 'washeteria', was opened in Fort Worth, Texas. 1949 Eire proclaimed itself the Republic of Ireland. 1968 The old London Bridge was sold to a US company, who shipped it, stone by stone, from Britain to Arizona, where it was re-erected. Born Lucrezia Borgia, duc- hess of Ferrara, 1480; Leopold Stokowski, US conductor and composer, 1882; Clarence Darrow, US lawyer, 1857; Barbara Hayle, US film actress, 1922; Hayley Mills, English actress, 1946; Malcolm Marshall, West Indian cricketer, 1958. Died Albert Einstein, German-born US physicist, 1955; George Jeffreys, the 'hanging judge', 1689; Erasmus Darwin, English phy- sician and writer, 1802; Ottorino Respighi, Italian composer, 1936; Will Hay, English comedian, 1949; Benny Hill, English comedian, 1992; Elisa- beth Frink, English sculptor, 1993. 19 April Feast day of St Leo IX, pope, St Alphege, St Geroldus, and St Expeditus 1587 In the incident known as 'singeing the King of Spain's beard', English navigator Francis Drake sank the Spanish fleet in Cadiz harbor. 1775 The first battle in the Revolutionary War took place at Le- xington, Massachusetts. 1951 The first 'Miss World' contest was held in London, UK; it was won by a Swedish contestant. 1958 Footballer Bobby Charlton played his first international match for England. 1956 US film actress Grace Kelly married Prince Rainier III of Monaco. 1961 The so-called Bay of Pigs invasion by Cuban exiles failed to overthrow Pre- sident Fidel Castro. 1972 Bangladesh joined the Commonwealth. Born David Ricardo, English economist, 1772; Richard Hughes, English novelist, 1900; Jayne Mansfield, US film actress, 1933; Dudley Moore, English-born comedy film actor, 1935; Murray Perahia, US pianist and conductor, 1947; Trevor Francis, English footballer, 1954. Died Paolo Veronese, Italian painter, 1588; George Gordon Byron, English poet, died of malaria on his way to fight for Greek independence, 1824; Benjamin Disraeli, British politician and novelist, 1881; Charles Darwin, English biologist who de- veloped the theory of evolution, 1882; Pierre Curie, French chemist and physicist, 1906; Konrad Adenauer, German politician, 1967. 20 April Feast day of St Caedwalla, St Agnes of Montepulciano, St Mar- cellinus of Embrun, St Marcian of Auxerre, St Hildegund, and St Peter of Verona. 1526 A Mogul army led by Babur defeated an Afghan army at the Battle of Panipat, taking the cities of Delhi and Agra. 1534 French exp- lorer Jacques Cartier arrived on the coast of Labrador, North America. 1657 English Admiral Robert Blake defeated the Spanish fleet in Santa Cruz Bay, off the Canary Islands. 1770 English navigator James Cook re- ached New South Wales, Australia. 1949 The Badminton Horse Trials were held for the first time, at Badminton, Gloucestershire, UK. 1969 Pierre Trudeau became prime minister of Canada. Born Adolf Hitler, German fas- cist dictator, 1889; Joan Mirу, Spanish painter, 1893; Harold Lloyd, US silent-film comedian, 1893; Donald Wolfit, English actor, 1902; Ray Bro- oks, English actor, 1939; Ryan O'Neal, US film actor, 1941. Died Jean Louis Petit, French surgeon, 1750; Canaletto, Italian landscape painter, 1768; Pontiac, American Indian leader, 1769; Bram Stoker, Irish author of Dracula, 1912; Christian X, king of Denmark, 1947. 21 April Feast day of St Anselm, St Beuno, St Maelrubba, St Ethilwald, St Anastasius of Antioch, St Conrad of Prazham, and St Simeon Barsabas and Others. 753 BC Traditionally, the date on which the city of Rome was founded. 1509 Henry VIII became king of England. 1960 The new city of Brasilia was declared the capital of Brazil, replacing Rio de Janeiro. 1964 British TV channel BBC 2 began broadcasting. 1967 King Constantine II of Greece was removed in an army coup, and martial law was imposed. 1983 One-pound coins replaced notes in England and Wales. 1989 Over 100,000 Chinese students gathered in Tiananmen Square, ignoring govern- ment warnings of severe punishment. Born Friedrich Froebel, German edu- cator, 1782; Henri de Montherlant, French novelist and playwright, 1896; Richard Beeching, British Rail chairman, 1913; Anthony Quinn, US film actor, 1915; John Mortimer, English author and playwright, 1923; Queen Elizabeth II, 1926. Died Henry VII, king of England, 1509; Jean-Baptiste Racine, French playwright, 1699; Mark Twain, US novelist, 1910; Manfred von Richtofen, 'the Red Baron', German fighter pilot, 1918; John Maynard Keynes, English economist, 1946; Richard Stafford Cripps, English lawyer and politician, 1952. 22 April Feast day of St Theodore of Sykeon, St Opportuna, St Agipatus I, pope, St Leonides of Alexandria, and Saints Epipodius and Alexander. 1500 Portuguese explorer Pedro Cabral claimed Brazil for Portugal. 1662 King Charles II granted a charter to the Royal Society of London, which became an important center of scientific activity in England. 1834 The South Atlantic island of St Helena was declared a British Crown Colony. 1838 The first steamship to cross the Atlantic, the British ship Sirius, arrived at New York; it made the crossing in 18 days. 1969 Sailor Robin Knox Johnston returned to Falmouth after a 312-day solo voyage around the world. 1972 The first people to row across the Pacific Ocean, Sylvia Cook and John Fairfax, arrived in Australia; they had been at sea for 362 days. Born Henry Fielding, English novelist, 1707; Immanuel Kant, German philosopher, 1724; Mme de Staлl, French writer, 1766; Robert Op- penheimer, US physicist who invented the atomic bomb, 1904; Kathleen Ferrier, English contralto, 1912; Yehudi Menuhin, US-born British violi- nist, 1916; George Cole, English actor, 1925; Jack Nicholson, US film actor, 1937. Died John Tradescant, English naturalist, 1662; James Harg- reaves, English inventor of the spinning jenny, 1778; John Crome, Eng- lish landscape painter, 1821; Thomas Rowlandson, English caricaturist, 1827; Henry Campbell-Bannerman, British politician, 1908. 23 April National Day of England. Feast day of St George, St Gerard of Toul, St Ibar, St Adalbert of Prague, and Saints Felix, Fortunatus, and Achilleus. 1349 English King Edward III founded the Order of the Garter. 1661 Charles II was crowned king of Great Britain and Ireland. 1662 Con- necticut was declared a British colony. 1879 The Shakespeare Memorial Theatre was opened at Stratford-on-Avon. 1924 The British Empire Exhibi- tion opened at Wembley. 1932 The New Shakespeare Memorial Theatre opened at Stratford-on-Avon. 1968 Britain's first decimal coins, the 5p and 10p, were issued in preparation for decimalization. 1984 New Formula Co- ca-Cola was announced. 1984 In Washington D.C., Margaret Heckler announ- ced the discovery of the AIDS virus. Born William Shakespeare, English playwright and poet, 1564; J M W Turner, English painter, 1775; Max Planck, German physicist, 1858; Ngaio Marsh, New Zealand novelist, 1899; James Donleavy, Irish novelist, 1926; Roy Orbison, US singer, 1936. Died William Shakespeare, 1616; Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, Spanish author of Don Quixote, 1616; William Wordsworth, English poet, 1850; Rupert Brooke, English poet, 1915; Otto Preminger, US film director, 1986; Sa- tyajit Ray, Indian film director, 1992. 24 April Feast day of St Mellitus, St Egbert, St Wilfrid, St Ives, St Fidelis, St Mary Euphrasia Pelletier, and St William Firmatus. 1558 Ma- ry, Queen of Scots married the French Dauphin. 1800 The US Library of Congress was founded in Washington DC. 1895 US sailor Joshua Slocum set off from Boston, US, to sail single-handed around the world; the voyage took just over three years. 1916 The Easter Rising - a Republican pro- test against British rule - took place in Dublin. 1949 Candy-rationing in Britain came to an end. 1970 The Gambia was declared a republic wit- hin the Commonwealth. Born Anthony Trollope, English novelist, 1815; Henri-Philippe Pйtain, French politician and soldier, 1856; William Joy- ce, 'Lord Haw-Haw', British traitor, 1906; Bridget Riley, English pain- ter, 1931; Shirley MacLaine, US actress, 1934; John Williams, Australian guitarist, 1941; Barbra Streisand, US film actress and singer, 1942. Di- ed Daniel Defoe, English author, 1731; Willa Cather, US novelist, 1947; Bud Abbott, US comedian, 1974; the Duchess of Windsor, 1986; Bill Ed- rich, English cricketer, 1986. 25 April Anzac Day in Australia. Feast day of St Mark the Evangelist, St Heribald, and St Anianus of Alexandria. 1792 The guillotine was first used in Paris. 1859 Work began on the Suez Canal, supervised by the French engineer Ferdinand de Lesseps, who designed it. 1915 In World War I, Australian and New Zealand troops landed at Gallipoli. 1925 Paul von Hindenburg was elected President of Germany. 1959 The St Lawrence Seaway was officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II and President Eisenhower, linking the Atlantic with ports on the Great Lakes. 1975 The first free elections for 50 years were held in Portugal, resulting in a precarious Socialist government. Born Oliver Cromwell, Puritan leader in the Eng- lish Civil War, 1599; Mark Isambard Brunel, French-born British engine- er, 1769; Walter de la Mare, English poet and novelist, 1873; Guglielmo Marconi, Italian inventor and pioneer in the development of radio, 1874; Ella Fitzgerald, US jazz singer, 1918; Al Pacino, US film actor, 1940; Johann Cruyff, Dutch footballer, 1947. Died Torquato Tasso, Italian po- et, 1595; Anders Celsius, Swedish astronomer who invented the centigrade thermometer, 1744; William Cowper, English poet, 1800; Carol Reed, Eng- lish film director, 1976; Celia Johnson, English actress, 1982. 26 April Feast day of St Cletus, St Riquier, St Stephen of Perm, St Pe- ter of Braga, St Franca of Piacenza, and St Paschasius Radbertus. 1923 The Duke of York and Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon, later King George VI and Qu- een Elizabeth, were married in Westminster Abbey. 1937 The Spanish town of Guernica was almost destroyed by German bombers acting in support of the Nationalists in the Spanish Civil War. 1957 English astronomer Pat- rick Moore presented the first broadcast of The Sky at Night. 1964 Tan- ganyika and Zanzibar merged to become the Republic of Tanzania. 1968 The largest underground nuclear device ever to be tested in the US exploded in Nevada. 1986 Radioactive material was leaked from a damaged nuclear reactor at Chernobyl, Ukraine; the effects could be measured thousands of miles away. Born Marcus Aurelius, Roman emperor, AD 121; John James Audubon, US naturalist and painter, 1785; Ferdinand Delacroix, French painter, 1798; Michel Fokine, Russian ballet dancer and choreographer, 1880; Ludwig Wittgenstein, Austrian philosopher, 1889; Rudolf Hess, Ger- man Nazi leader, 1894. Died Karl Bosch, German metallurgist and chemist, 1940; Gypsy Rose Lee, US dancer and striptease artist, 1970; Cicely Co- urtneidge, British actress, 1980; Count Basie, US bandleader, 1984; Bro- derick Crawford, US film actor, 1986. 27 April Feast day of St Zita, St Machalus, St Floribert of Liиge, St Asicus, St Anthimus of Nicomedia, and Saints Castor and Stephen. 1296 An English army, led by Edward I, defeated the Scots at the Battle of Dun- bar. 1749 The first official performance of Handel's Music for the Royal Fireworks finished early due to the outbreak of fire. 1937 King George VI performed the official opening of the National Maritime Museum at Greenwich. 1939 Conscription for men aged 20- 21 was announced in Brita- in. 1947 Norwegian anthropologist Thor Heyerdahl set off from Callao, Peru, heading for Polynesia to prove his theory that the original Poly- nesian islanders could have come from Peru. 1960 French Togoland became independent as the Republic of Togo. 1961 Sierra Leone became an inde- pendent republic within the Commonwealth. Born Edward Gibbon, English historian who wrote The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 1737; Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin, English feminist author, 1759; Samuel Morse, US inventor of Morse Code, 1791; Ulysses Simpson Grant, US general and 18th president, 1822; Cecil Day Lewis, English poet, 1904; Anouk Aimйe, French film actress, 1932; Sandy Dennis, US film actress, 1937. Died Ferdinand Magellan, Portuguese navigator, murdered by islanders in the Philippines, 1521; Ralph Waldo Emerson, US poet and essayist, 1882; Ale- xander Skryabin, Russian composer, 1915; Harold Hart Crane, US poet, 1932; Kwame Nkrumah, president of Ghana, 1972. 28 April Feast day of St Louis de Montfort, St Vitalis, St Peter Mary Chanel, St Cyril of Turov, St Valeria, St Pollio, Saints Theodora and Didymus, St Pamphilus of Sulmona, and St Cronan Roscrea. 1603 Queen Eli- zabeth I's funeral took place at Westminster Abbey. 1770 English naviga- tor Captain James Cook and his crew, including the botanist Joseph Banks, landed in Australia, at the place which was later named Botany Bay. 1789 The crew of the ship Bounty, led by Fletcher Christian, muti- nied against their captain, William Bligh. 1919 The League of Nations was founded. 1923 The first FA Cup Final was held at Wembley Stadium. 1965 US marines intervened in an attempted communist coup. 1969 French president General de Gaulle resigned. Born King Edward IV of England, 1442; James Monroe, 5th president of the US, 1758; Charles Sturt, Bri- tish explorer of Australia, 1795; Lionel Barrymore, US actor, 1878; Ken- neth Kaunda, president of Zambia, 1924; Ann-Margret, Swedish actress, 1941; Mike Brearley, English cricketer, 1942. Died Gavrilo Princip, Bos- nian revolutionary assassin who caused World War I by killing Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife, 1918; King Fuad I of Egypt, 1936; Benito Mussolini, 1945; Francis Bacon, Irish-born painter, 1992; Olivier Messi- aen, French composer, 1992. 29 April National Day of Japan. Feast day of St Catherine of Siena, St Wilfrid the Younger, St Hugh of Cluny, St Endellion, St Joseph Cottolen- go, St Robert of Molesme, and St Peter the Martyr. 1429 The Siege of Orlйans was lifted by a French army under the leadership of Joan of Arc. 1884 Oxford University agreed to admit female students to examinations. 1913 Swedish-born US inventor Gideon Sundback patented the zipper in its modern form - earlier versions had not been successful. 1916 Republican rebels destroyed the Post Office in Dublin. 1945 The German army in Ita- ly surrendered to the Allies under the British General Alexander. Born Thomas Beecham, English conductor, 1879; 'Duke' Ellington, US composer and bandleader, 1899; Emperor Hirohito of Japan, 1901; Fred Zinneman, US film director, 1907; Peter de la Biliиre, British commander in the Gulf War, 1934; Zubin Mehta, Indian conductor, 1936; Saddam Hussein, presi- dent of Iraq, 1937. Died George Farquhar, Irish playwright, 1707; Cons- tantinos Cavafy, Greek poet, 1933; Wallace Carothers, US chemist who pa- tented nylon, 1937; Alfred Hitchcock, English film director, 1980; And- rew Cruikshank, English actor, 1988. 30 April National Day of the Netherlands. Feast day of St Erkenwald, St Pius V, pope, St Forannan, St Wolfhard, St Maximus of Ephesus, St Eutro- pius of Saintes, and Saints Marianus, James, and Others. 1789 George Washington became the first president of the US. 1803 France sold Loui- siana to the US. 1902 Debussy's opera Pellйas et Mйlisande had its first performance, in Paris. 1975 The Vietnam War ended, with the South sur- rendering unconditionally to the North. 1979 In Britain, the Jubilee Li- ne on the London Underground was officially opened. 1980 Queen Juliana of the Netherlands abdicated and was succeeded by her daughter, Beatrix. Born David Thompson, English explorer, 1770; Karl Gauss, German mathema- tician and astronomer, 1777; Franz Lehбr, Hungarian composer, 1870; Ja- roslav Hasek, Czech novelist, 1883; Queen Juliana of the Netherlands, 1909; Cloris Leachman, US film actress, 1926; King Carl XVI Gustav of Sweden, 1946. Died Robert Fitzroy, English admiral and meteorologist, 1865; Edouard Manet, French painter, 1883; Otto Jespersen, Danish philo- logist, 1943; Adolf Hitler, German fascist dictator, 1945; Eva Braun, German mistress and later wife of Adolf Hitler, 1945; Muddy Waters, US blues singer, 1983; George Balanchine, Russian choreographer, 1983. 1 May May Day. Feast day of St Asaph, St Corentin, St Joseph, St Brioc, St Amator, St Marcoul, Saints Philip and James, St Peregrine Laziosi, St Sigismund of Burgundy, and St Theodard of Narbonne. 1517 In 'Evil May Day' riots in London, England, apprentices attacked foreign residents. Wolsey suppressed the rioters, of whom 60 were hanged. 1707 The Union of England and Scotland was proclaimed. 1786 The first performance of Mo- zart's opera The Marriage of Figaro was given in Vienna. 1851 Queen Vic- toria opened the Great Exhibition in Hyde Park, London. 1925 Cyprus be- came a Crown Colony. 1926 British miners began a strike that continued until 19 November. 1931 The Empire State Building, New York, was comple- ted; it had cost $41 million to build. 1933 A telephone link between Britain and India was established. 1960 A US U-2 aircraft piloted by Ga- ry Powers, was shot down as it flew over the USSR. 1961 Betting shops became legal in Britain. Born Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington, 1769; Glenn Ford, US film actor, 1916; Joseph Heller, US novelist, 1923; Sonny Ramadhin, West Indies cricketer, 1929; Una Stubbs, English act- ress, 1937; Joanna Lumley, English actress, 1946. Died John Dryden, Eng- lish poet, 1700; David Livingstone, Scottish missionary, 1873; AntonЎn Dvorбk, Czech composer, 1904; Joseph Goebbels, German Nazi propaganda minister, 1945; William Fox, US film producer, 1952; Harold Nicolson, English diplomat and author, 1968. 2 May Feast day of St Gennys, St Athanasius, St Mefalda, St Wiborada, St Waldebert, Saints Exuperius and Zoe, and St Ultan of Fosses. 1251 Si- mon de Montfort suppressed the Gascon rebellion. 1482 Venice, in allian- ce with the Papacy, declared war on Ferrara, which was supported by Flo- rence, Milan and Naples. 1536 Queen Anne Boleyn was sent to the Tower of London. 1611 The Authorized Version of the Bible (King James Version) was first published. 1670 The Hudson Bay Company was incorporated. 1926 US troops landed to preserve order in Nicaraguan revolt. 1936 Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie and his family fled from Addis Ababa, three days before it fell to Italian forces. 1945 Germany surrendered to Allied forces. 1969 The passenger liner Queen Elizabeth II set off from Sout- hampton on its first voyage. 1989 Martial law was imposed in China as the government took a firmer stand against pro-democracy demonstrators in Tiananmen Square. Born Catherine II 'the Great' of Russia, 1729; Je- rome K Jerome, English novelist and playwright, 1859; Theodor Herzl, Hungarian founder of Zionism, 1860; Benjamin Spock, US childcare specia- list, 1903; Bing Crosby, US singer, 1904; Peggy Mount, English actress, 1916; Clive Jenkins, British labor-union leader, 1926; David Suchet, British actor, 1946. Died Leonardo da Vinci, Florentine artist and sci- entist, 1519; Joseph McCarthy, US politician who investigated suspected communists, 1957; Nancy Astor, first British woman MP, 1964; J Edgar Ho- over, US director of the FBI, 1972. 3 May Feast day of St Glywys, St Juvenal of Narni, Saints Alexander, Eventius, and Theodulus, and Saints Timothy and Maura. 1381 the weavers of Ghent, led by Philip van Artevelde, take Bruges; other Flemish towns revolt. 1493 Pope Alexander VI published the first bull Inter cetera di- viding the New World between Spain and Portugal. 1497 An uprising broke out in Cornwall, England, provoked by taxation; James Tutchet, Lord Aud- ley, led an army of 15,000 from Taunton through the southern counties to attack London. 1747 The Battle of Cape Finisterre took place, at which the British defeated the French. 1808 A duel was fought from two hot-air balloons over Paris, the first of its kind. 1841 New Zealand was decla- red a British colony. 1898 Bread riots in Milan were put down with heavy loss of life. 1906 The Sinai Peninsula became Egyptian territory after Turkey renounced its claims. 1951 British King George VI opened the Fes- tival of Britain. 1958 US President Eisenhower proposes demilitarisation of Antarctica, subsequently accepted by the countries concerned. Born Niccolу Machiavelli, Italian politician, 1469; John Scott Haldane, Scot- tish physiologist, 1860; Golda Meir, Russian-born Israeli prime minis- ter, 1898; Sugar Ray Robinson, US boxer, 1920; Norman Thelwell, English cartoonist, 1923; James Brown, US singer, 1933; Henry Cooper, English boxer, 1934. Died Eglon van der Neer, Dutch painter, 1703; Thomas Hood, English poet, 1845; Henry Cornelius, South African-born film director, 1958; Karl Freund, Czech-born US film cameraman and photographer, 1969. 4 May Feast day of St Pelagia of Tarsus, St Florian of Lorch, St Robert Lawrence, St Augustine Webster, St Gothard, St John Houghton, St Veneri- us of Milan, and St Cyriacus. 1471 The Battle of Tewkesbury, the last battle in the Wars of the Roses, took place; the Yorkists defeated the Lancastrians. 1780 The first Derby was run at Epsom; the winner was Dio- med. 1896 The first issue of the Daily Mail was published in London, UK. 1904 Work began on the Panama Canal. 1926 The General Strike began in Britain, with almost half of the country's 6,000,000 labor-union members participating; it continued until 12 May. 1954 Roger Bannister, a 25 year old English medical student, became the first man to run a mile in under 4 minutes. 1973 The world's tallest building, Sears Tower, Chica- go, was completed. 1979 Margaret Thatcher became prime minister of Bri- tain. Born Thomas Huxley, English naturalist, 1825; John Speke, English explorer who discovered the source of the Nile, 1827; Alice Liddell, the girl for whom Lewis Carroll wrote Alice in Wonderland, 1852; Sylvia Pankhurst, English suffragist, 1882; Eric Sykes, English comedian, 1923; Audrey Hepburn, Dutch-born US film actress, 1929. Died William Froude, English engineer and mathematician, 1879; Georges Enesco, Romanian com- poser, 1955; Osbert Sacheverell Sitwell, English author, 1969; Josip Broz Tito, Yugoslavian soldier and president, 1980; Diana Dors, English film actress, 1984. 5 May Feast day of St Hydroc, St Hilary of Arles, St Hilary of Galeata, St Angelo, St Jutta, St Avertinus, and St Mauruntius. 1525 The Peasants' Revolt in south Germany was suppressed and the Anabaptist preacher Tho- mas Mьnzer was hanged a few days later. 1751 Portuguese foreign secreta- ry Sebastiaп Pombal curbed the power of the Inquisition in Portugal by decreeing that no auto da fй should take place without government appro- val. 1762 The Treaty of St Petersburg was signed between Russia and Prussia; Russia restored all territory taken and formed an alliance with Prussia. 1816 Carl August of Saxe-Weimar granted the first German cons- titution. 1863 In the American Civil War, Confederate troops defeated Federal forces at the Battle of Chancellorsville, but 'Stonewall' Jack- son died of his wounds five days later. 1864 The indecisive Battle of the Wilderness was fought in Virginia, between Federal troops under Ulysses S Grant and Confederate troops under Robert E Lee. 1865 A revolt in San Domingo forced Spain to renounce sovereignty. Born Godfrey of Bo- uillon, Norman crusader, first king of Jerusalem, 1061; Gerardus Merca- tor (Gerhard Kremer), German cartographer, 1512; Leopold III, Holy Roman Emperor, 1747; George Borrow, English author, 1803; Sцren Kierkegaard, Danish philosopher, 1813; Karl Marx, German philosopher and author, 1818; Archibald, Lord Wavell, British soldier, 1883. Died Charles, Duke of Bourbon, 1527; Edward Young, English poet, 1765; Napoleon Bonaparte, French emperor, 1821; Francis Bret Harte, US author, 1902. 6 May Feast day of St Edbert, Saints Marian and James, St Evodius of Antioch, St Petronax, and St John Before the Latin Gate. 1527 The Sack of Rome, when imperialist troops under Charles, Duke of Bourbon (who was killed), mutinied, pillaging the city and killing some 4,000 of the in- habitants. Valuable art treasures were looted. Law was not restored un- til Feb 1528. 1576 The Fifth War of Religion in France ended; the Hugue- nots were granted freedom of worship in all places except Paris. 1626 Dutch settler Peter Minuit bought the island of Manhattan from native Americans for goods worth about $25. 1840 The Penny Black, the first postage stamp, was issued in Britain. 1882 Fenians murdered Irish chief secretary, Lord Frederick Cavendish, and T H Burke, Irish under-secreta- ry, in Phoenix Park, Dublin. 1910 George V became king of the United Kingdom on the death of Edward VII. 1937 The German zeppelin Hindenburg caught fire in New Jersey, US, killing 36 passengers. Born Pope Marcel- lus II, 1501; Pope Innocent X, 1574; Thomas William Coke, Earl of Lei- cester, 1754; Andrй Massena, French soldier, 1756; Maximilien Franзois Robespierre, French revolutionary leader, 1758; Franзois Guillaume And- rieux 1759; Sigmund Freud, Austrian psychoanalyst, 1856; Robert Edwin Peary, US Arctic explorer, 1856; Rabindranath Tagore, Indian poet and philosopher, 1861. Died Juan Luis Vives, Spanish philosopher, 1540; Francesco Guicciardini, Italian historian, 1540; Robert Cotton, English antiquary, 1631; Cornelius Jansen, Dutch theologian, 1638; Alexander von Humboldt, German explorer, 1859; Henry David Thoreau, US poet, 1862; Ma- urice Maeterlinck, Belgian playwright, 1949; Marlene Dietrich, Ger- man-born singer and actress, 1992. 7 May Feast day of St John of Beverley, St Letard, St Domitian of Maes- tricht, and Saints Serenicus and Serenus. 1793 The second partition of Poland was effected, with Russia taking Lithuania and W Ukraine, and Prussia taking Danzig, Thorn, Posen, Gnesen, and Kalisch. 1821 The Afri- ca Company was dissolved because of heavy expenses incurred, and Sierra Leone, Gambia, and Gold Coast were taken over by the British government to form British West Africa. 1832 Greece became an independent kingdom. 1848 Polish rebels surrendered after Prussian troops put down an insur- rection in Warsaw. 1915 German forces sank the liner Lusitania off the Irish coast, with the loss of 1,198 lives; the US was brought to the verge of war with Germany. 1928 Women's suffrage in Britain was reduced from the age of 30 to 21. 1954 Dien Bien Phu fell to Communist Vietname- se. 1960 Leonid Brezhnev replaced Marshal Voroshilov as President of the USSR. Born David Hume, Scottish philosopher and historian, 1711; Robert Browning, English poet, 1812; Johannes Brahms, German composer, 1833; Peter Iljitch Tchaikovsky, Russian composer, 1840; Archibald Philip Primrose, Lord Rosebery, British politician, 1847; Gary Cooper, US film actor, 1901. Died Jacques de Thou, French historian and politician, 1617; Mary of Modena, consort of James II, 1718; Henry, Lord Brougham, British politician, 1868; Paul Doumer, French president, assassinated, 1932; George Lansbury, British politician, 1940; James George Frazer, Scottish anthropologist, 1941. 8 May Feast day of St Indract, St Odger, St Victor, St Wiro, St Peter of Tarentaise, St Benedict II, pope, St Boniface IV, pope, St Gibrian, St Plechelm, St Desideratus of Bourges, and St Acacius. 1559 Queen Eli- zabeth I of England signed the Act of Uniformity. 1886 The Presidential Succession law was passed in the US, providing for succession to presi- dency in the event of the deaths of both the President and the Vice-Pre- sident. 1892 A ban was imposed on natives of the Congo, prohibiting them from collecting rubber and ivory other than for the state. 1902 On the Caribbean island of Martinique, the volcano Mount Pelйe erupted, killing 30,000 people. 1950 Douglas MacArthur appointed commander of UN forces in Korea. 1958 J F Dulles stated in Berlin House of Representatives that an attack on Berlin would be regarded as an attack on the Allies. Born Peter Martyr (Pieto Martire Vermigli), Italian religious reformer, 1500; Phineas Fletcher, English poet, 1582; Francis Quarles, English poet, 1592; Claude de Villars, French soldier, 1653; Alain Renй Lesage, French novelist and playwright, 1668; Henry Baker, English naturalist, 1698; Franзois Mignet, French historian, 1796; Ruggiero Leoncavallo, Italian composer, 1858; Harry S Truman, 33rd president of the US, 1884; David Attenborough, English naturalist and broadcaster, 1926. Died Palla Strozzi, founder of the first public library in Florence, 1462; Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, French chemist, guillotined, 1794; Vittorio Alfieri, Italian poet, 1803; John Stuart Mill, English philosopher, 1873; Gustave Flaubert, French novelist, 1880; Oswald Spengler, German philosopher, 1936; Henry Gordon Selfridge, US-born British store-owner, 1947; Emmanu- el Shinwell, British politician, 1986. 9 May Feast day of St Beatus of Lungern, St Gerontius of Cervia, St Be- atus of Vendфme, and St Pachomius. 1386 The Treaty of Windsor, between kings Richard and John, made a perpetual alliance between England and Portugal. 1695 The Scottish Parliament met and inquired into the massac- re of Glencoe. 1828 The British Test and Corporation Acts were repealed so that Catholic and Protestant Nonconformists could hold public office in Britain. 1939 British prime minister Winston Churchill urged military alliance with USSR. 1940 RAF began night bombing of Germany. 1940 Roma- nia placed itself under German protection. 1945 Russian troops took Pra- gue. 1946 Victor Emmanuel III of Italy abdicated and Umberto II proclai- med himself king. Born Giovanni Paisiello, Italian composer, 1741; Jean Sismondi, Swiss historian and economist, 1773; John Brown, US abolitio- nist, 1800; J M Barrie 1860; Howard Carter, British Egyptologist, 1873; Joan Sims, English actress, 1930; Alan Bennett, English actor and playw- right, 1934; Glenda Jackson, English actress, 1936. Died James Lancas- ter, English navigator, 1618; William Bradford, English-born American colonist, 1657; Dietrich Buxtehude, Danish organist and composer, 1707; Louis-Joseph Gay-Lussac, French physicist and chemist, 1850; Helena Bla- vatsky, Russian founder of the Theosophical Society, 1891; Ethel Smyth, English composer and suffragist, 1944. 10 May Feast day of St Catald, St Conleth, Saints Gordian and Epimac- hus, St Antoninus, St Alphius, St Calepodius, St Cataldus, St Solange, and St John of Avila. 994 The Danes devastated Anglesey. 1804 Pitt re- turned to office. 1857 A revolt of Sepoys at Meerut began the Indian Mu- tiny against British rule. 1893 Natal was granted self-government. 1910 The British House of Commons resolved that the maximum lifetime of Par- liament be reduced from seven to five years. 1916 Ernest Shackleton and companions reached South Georgia after sailing 1,300 km/800 mi in 16 da- ys in an open boat to seek help for the remaining members of their par- ty, marooned on Elephant Island, Antarctica. 1941 The House of Commons was destroyed in London's heaviest air raid. Born Sir John Sinclair, Scottish politician and agriculturalist, 1754; Augustin Thierry, French historian, 1795; James Bryce, British politician and diplomat, 1838; Be- nito Pйrez Galdуs, Spanish novelist and playwright, 1845; Karl Barth, Swiss theologian and author, 1886; Fred Astaire, US dancer, 1899; David O Selznick, US film producer, 1902. Died Leonhard Fuchs, German physici- an and botanist, 1566; Jean de la Bruyиre, French writer, 1696; Paul Re- vere, American hero, 1818; Katsushuka Hokusai, Japanese artist, 1849; Henry Morton Stanley, US journalist and explorer, 1904; Joan Crawford, US film actress, 1977. 11 May Feast day of St Comgall, St Credan, St Maieul, St Tudy, St Ans- frid, St Walter of l'Esterp, St Richard Reynolds, St Francis di Girola- mo, St Ignatius of Laconi, St Asaph, St Gengulf, and Mamertus. 973 Edgar crowned at Bath as King of all England; he then went to Chester, where eight Scottish and Welsh kings rowed him on the Dee. 1534 English King Henry VIII made peace with his nephew, James V of Scotland. 1709 The first mass emigration of Germans from the Palatinate to North America began. 1812 British prime minister Spencer Perceval was assassinated in House of Commons. 1824 British forces took Rangoon, Burma. 1949 Siam changed its name to Thailand. 1949 Israel was admitted to United Nati- ons. Born Hector Berlioz, French composer, 1803; Chang and Eng, Chinese Siamese twins, 1811; Irving Berlin, US composer, 1888; Paul Nash, Eng- lish painter, 1889; Margaret Rutherford, English actress, 1892; Mikhail Sholokhov, Russian novelist, 1905. Died 'Abd-al-Mu'min, Almohad ruler of Muslim Spain and NW Africa, 1163; Matteo Ricci, Jesuit missionary, 1610; William Pitt, Earl of Chatham, British politician, 1778; John Herschel, English astronomer, 1871; William Dean Howells, US novelist and critic, 1920; Kim Philby, English-born Soviet spy, 1988. 12 May Feast day of St Dominic of the Causeway, St John Stone, St Et- helhard, St Fremund, Saints Nereus and Achilleus, St Pancras of Rome, St Epiphanius of Salamis, St Germanus of Constantinople, St Modoaldus, and St Rictrudis. 1394 Malik Sarvar founded the Muslim kingdom of Jaunpur, on the middle Ganges. 1536 Sir Francis Weston, Mark Smeaton and other alleged lovers of Anne Boleyn were tried for treason; they were executed on the 17th. 1809 Arthur Wellesley defeated French under Soult at Oporto and forced them to retreat from Portugal. 1881 Tunisia became a French protectorate. 1949 Berlin blockade was officially lifted. 1961 United States of the Congo founded, with Lйopoldville the federal capital. 1962 South African General Law Amendment bill imposed the death penalty for sabotage. 1965 West Germany established diplomatic relations with Isra- el; Arab states broke off relations with Bonn. Born Claudio Monteverdi, Italian composer, 1567; Augustus II of Poland and Elector of Saxony, 1670; Joseph Nicolas Delisle, French astronomer, 1688; John Bannister, English comedian, 1760; Justus von Liebig, German chemist, 1803; Floren- ce Nightingale, English nursing pioneer, 1820; Dante Gabriel Rossetti, English painter and poet, 1828; Jules Massenet, French composer, 1842. Died George Chapman, English playwright, 1634; Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, English politician, executed, 1641; Bedrich Smetana, Czech composer, 1884; Joris Karl Huysmans, French novelist, 1907; Alfred, Lord Milner, British politician, 1925; Arthur Quiller-Couch ('Q'), English writer, 1944; Erich von Stroheim, Austrian-born US silent-film actor and director, 1957; John Masefield, English poet, 1967. 13 May Feast day of St Andrew Hubert Fournet, St John the Silent, St Servatius, St Mucius, St Peter Regalatus, St Erconwald, St Euthymius the Enlightener, St Glyceria of Heraclia, and St Robert Bellarmine. 1203 By- zantine emperor Alexius Comnenus seized Trebizond and established a new Greek empire there. 1607 Riots took place in Northamptonshire, and other Midland counties of England in protest at widespread enclosure of common land. 1643 Oliver Cromwell defeated Royalists at Grantham. 1846 Formal declaration of war by US against Mexico. 1888 Serfdom was abolished in Brazil. 1915 The names of Emperors of Germany and Austria were struck off the roll of Knights of the Garter. 1927 'Black Friday' with the col- lapse of Germany's economic system. 1945 VE day: Europe celebrated vic- tory over the German allied forces. Born Dante Alighieri, Italian poet, 1265; Lazare Nicolas Marguerite Carnot, French revolutionary leader, 1753; Pope Pius IX, 1792; Alphonse Daudet, French novelist, 1840; Arthur Sullivan, English composer, 1842; Ronald Ross, British bacteriologist, 1857; Daphne du Maurier, English novelist, 1907; Joe Louis, US boxer, 1914; Stevie Wonder, US singer, 1950. Died Johan van Oldenbarneveldt, Dutch lawyer and politician, 1619; Georges Cuvier, French zoologist, 1832; John Nash, English architect, 1835; Friedrich Henle, German anato- mist, 1885; Fridtjof Nansen, Norwegian Arctic explorer, 1930; Gary Coo- per, US film actor, 1961. 14 May Feast day of St Mary Mazzarello, St Pontius of Cimiez, St Cart- hage the Younger, St Erembert, St Matthias, St Gemma Galgani, and St Michael Garicoпts. 1080 Walcher, Bishop of Durham and Earl of Northum- berland was murdered; William (the Conqueror) consequently ravaged the area; he also invaded Scotland and built the castle at Newcast- le-upon-Tyne. 1264 The English barons under Simon de Montfort defeated Henry III at the Battle of Lewes. 1147 Conrad and the German crusaders departed from Regensburg. 1897 By treaty with Ethiopia Britain abandoned certain claims in Somaliland but Emperor Menelek refused to surrender his claims to lands near the Nile. 1921 29 Fascists returned in Italian elections. 1946 Anti-Jewish pogrom in Kielce, Poland. 1948 As the Bri- tish mandate in Palestine came to an end, a Jewish provisional govern- ment was formed in Israel with Chaim Weizmann as president and David Ben-Gurion as premier. Born Marguйrite de Valois, queen of Navarre, 1553; Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit, German physicist, the first to use mer- cury in thermometers, 1686; Robert Owen, Welsh social reformer, 1771; Squire Bancroft, English actor, 1841; Hall Caine, English novelist, 1853; Otto Klemperer, German conductor, 1885; Hastings Banda, president of Malawi, 1905. Died Jean Grolier, French diplomat and bibliophile, 1565; Henry IV of France, assassinated, 1610; Daniel Auber, French com- poser, 1871; August Strindberg, Swedish playwright, 1912; Henry Rider Haggard, English novelist, 1925; Jean Rhys, British novelist, 1979. 15 May Feast day of St Berchtun, St Dympna, St Pachomius, Saints Bertha and Rupert, St Isidore of Chios, St Gerebernus, St Hallvard, St Isias of Rostov, St Hilary of Galeata, St Peter of Lampsacus, St Isidore the Far- mer, and St Torquatus and his Companions. 1567 Mary Queen of Scots mar- ried Bothwell in Edinburgh. 1649 The Levellers were defeated at Burford. 1848 A communist rising began in Paris, after news of suppression of Po- lish revolt; workers overturned the government and set up a provisional administration which immediately collapsed. 1902 Portugal declared it- self bankrupt. 1922 Germany ceded Upper Silesia to Poland. 1937 Muslim rising in Albania. 1946 US President Truman signed a bill of credit for $3.75 billion for Britain. 1948 Egyptian troops intervened in Palestine on the side of the Arabs. 1957 Britain exploded the first British ther- monuclear bomb in megaton range at Christmas Island, in the Central Pa- cific. Born Clemens Prince Metternich, Austrian politician, 1773; Pierre Curie, French physicist, 1859; Arthur Schnitzler, Austrian novelist and playwright, 1862; James Mason, US film actor, 1909; Ted Dexter, English cricketer, 1935; Ralph Steadman, British cartoonist, 1936. Died Ephraim Chambers, English encyclopedist, 1740; Richard Wilson, Welsh landscape painter, 1782; Daniel O'Connell, Irish leader, 1847; Emily Dickinson, US poet, 1886; Leslie Ward ('Spy'), English caricaturist, 1922; Rita Hay- worth, US film actress, 1987. 16 May Feast day of St Brendan the Navigator, St Carantoc, St Peregrine of Auxerre, St Simon Stock, St Domnolus of Le Mans, St Honoratus of Ami- ens, St Germerius, St John Nepomucen, St Possidius, and St Ubaldus of Gubbio. 1152 Henry II married Eleanor of Aquitaine. 1203 Baldwin, Count of Flanders, was crowned Latin Emperor of Constantinople. 1220 Henry II laid the foundation stone of a new Lady Chapel at Westminster Abbey, thus beginning the new abbey-church (1245). 1770 The Dauphin of France (later Louis XVI) married Marie Antoinette, daughter of the Empress Ma- ria Theresa of Austria. 1804 Napoleon was declared Emperor. 1907 The Pact of Cartagena was declared between Britain, France, and Spain to co- unter German designs on the Balearic and Canary Islands. 1949 Chinese Nationalists organized a Supreme Council under Chiang Kai-shek, which began to remove forces to Formosa. Born Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor, 1316; John Sell Cotman, English watercolorist, 1782; Maria Gaetana Agne- si, Italian scholar, 1718; Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle, French soldier who wrote the Marseillaise, 1760; Henry Fonda, US film actor, 1905; Roy Hudd, English comedian, 1936. Died Hйloise, French nun, 1164; Peter the Lombard, Bishop of Paris, 1164; Charles Perrault, French writer of fairy tales, 1703; Edward Gibbon Wakefield, British colonial politician, 1862; Edward Augustus Freeman, English historian, 1892; Bronislaw Malinowski, Polish anthropologist, 1942. 17 May Feast day of St Madron, St Paschal Baylon, and St Bruno of Wьrzburg. 1215 The English barons in revolt against King John took pos- session of London. 1527 Archbishop Warham began a secret inquiry at Gre- enwich into Henry VIII's marriage with Catherine of Aragon, the first step in divorce proceedings. 1536 Archbishop Cranmer declared Henry VI- II's marriage to Anne Boleyn invalid; she was executed on the 19th. 1742 Frederick II defeated the Austrians at Chotusitz. 1885 Germany annexed Northern New Guinea and the Bismarck Archipelago. 1900 The Relief of Ma- feking by British troops against the besieging Boer forces. 1939 Sweden, Norway and Finland rejected Germany's offer of non-aggression pacts, but Denmark, Estonia and Latvia accepted. 1954 Racial segregation was banned in US state schools. 1960 The Kariba Dam, Rhodesia, was opened. Born Ma- ria Theresa, empress, 1717; Edward Jenner, English pioneer of vaccinati- on, 1749; Timothy Healy, Irish nationalist leader, 1855; Erik Satie, French composer, 1866; Dennis Hopper, US film actor, Bhagwat Chandrasek- har, Indian cricketer, 1945; Sugar Ray Leonard, US boxer, 1956. Died Sandro Botticelli, Italian painter, 1510; Matthew Parker, archbishop of Canterbury, 1575; Samuel Clarke, English philosopher, 1729; Charles de Talleyrand-Pйrigord, French politician, 1838; Cass Gilbert, US archi- tect, 1934. 18 May Feast day of St Elgiva, St John I, pope, St Eric, king of Swe- den, St Felix of Cantalicio, St Potamon, and Saints Theodotus and Thecu- sa. 1302 A French garrison was massacred in the 'Matins of Bruges', when the Flemings revolted against the French occupation. 1764 The British Parliament amended the Sugar Act from a commercial to a fiscal measure, to tax American colonists. 1878 Colombia granted a French company a ni- ne-year concession to build the Panama Canal. 1900 Tonga became a Bri- tish protectorate. 1936 An army revolt under Emilio Mola and Francisco Franco began the Spanish Civil War. 1940 At Japan's request Britain pro- hibited the passage of war materials for China passing through Burma. 1944 Monte Cassino, Italy, was taken by Allied forces. 1980 Mount St He- lens, US, erupted for the first time since 1857, devastating an area of 600 sq km/230 sq mi. Born Pieter Breughel, Flemish painter, 1525; George Gascoigne, English poet and playwright, 1525; Charles, Cardinal of Lor- raine, 1525; John Stow, English historian, 1525; Joseph Butler, English philosopher, 1692; Bertrand Russell, English philosopher, 1872; Walter Gropius, US architect, 1883; Pierre Balmain, French fashion designer, 1914. Died Elias Ashmole, English antiquarian, 1692; Pierre Augustin Ca- ron de Beaumarchais, French playwright, 1799; Johann Gottfried von Her- der, German critic and poet, 1803; George Meredith, English novelist, 1909; Gustav Mahler, Austrian composer, 1911; Paul Dukas, French compo- ser, 1935; Werner Sombart, German economist, 1941. 19 May Feast day of St Dunstan, St Pudentiana, St Peter Celestine, Sa- ints Calocerus and Parthenius, St Ivo of Kermartin, St Crispin of Viter- bo, and St Peter Morrone. 1585 English shipping in Spanish ports was confiscated as a reprisal for depredations across the Line; this served as a declaration of war on England. 1643 The Confederation of New Eng- land was formed by Connecticut, New Haven, Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay. 1649 England was declared a Commonwealth. 1662 The Act of Uniformi- ty gave consent to the revised English Prayer Book and denied the right to take up arms against the king; Presbyterianism in the Church was destroyed and many ministers who did not confirm were ejected. A Licen- sing Act forbade imports of literature contrary to Christian faith. 1930 White women were enfranchised in South Africa. 1964 The US complained to Moscow about microphones concealed in its Moscow embassy. Born Johann Gottlieb Fichte, German philosopher, 1762; Nellie Melba, Australian sin- ger, 1861; Ho Chi Minh, Vietnamese leader, 1890; Max Perutz, Austri- an-born British molecular biologist, 1914; Sandy Wilson, British compo- ser and playwright, 1924; Michael Balcon, English film producer, 1896. Died Alcuin of York, English poet, 804; James Boswell, Scottish biograp- her and diarist, 1795; Nathaniel Hawthorne, US novelist, 1864; William Ewart Gladstone, British politician, 1898; T E Lawrence, English soldier and writer, 1935; Charles Ives, US composer, 1954; Ogden Nash, US poet, 1971; John Betjeman, English poet, 1984. 20 May Feast day of St Bernardino of Siena, St Ethelbert of East Ang- lia, St Basilla, St Austregisilus, St Baudelius, and Saints Thalelaeus, Asterius, Alexander, and Others. 1191 Richard I 'the Lion Heart' conque- red Cyprus from its independent Greek ruler, then joined the Crusaders before Acre. 1449 Afonso V of Portugal defeated a rebellion by his brot- her, Peter, who was killed, at Alfarrobeira. 1631 Flemish commander Co- unt Tilly's imperialist army sacked Magdeburg; terrible carnage ensued and the city caught fire, leaving only the cathedral standing. 1927 By the treaty of Jeddah Britain recognized the independence of Saudi Ara- bia. 1941 German forces invaded Crete. 1941 British ministerial changes, with Brendan Bracken as Minister of Information and R A Butler as Presi- dent of Board of Education. 1944 Nazi officers attempted to assassinate Hitler at a staff meeting. 1946 A bill for nationalisation of British coal mines passed the Commons stage. 1950 The US Senate committee denied Senator Joseph McCarthy's charges of Communist infiltration of the State Department. Born Donato d'Agnolo Bramante de Urbino, Italian architect, 1444; Sandro Botticelli, Italian painter, 1444; Honorй de Balzac, French novelist, 1799; Thomas Lovell Beddoes, English poet and physiologist, 1803; John Stuart Mill, English philosopher, 1806; James Stewart, US film actor, 1908; Moshe Dayan, Israeli military leader, 1915. Died St Bernardino of Siena, 1444; Christopher Columbus, Genoese navigator, 1506; Caterina Sforza, Countess of Forli, 1509; Nicholas Brady, Anglican clergyman, 1726; John Clare, English poet, 1864; Clara Schumann, German pianist, 1896; Max Beerbohm, English writer and caricaturist, 1956; Bar- bara Hepworth, English sculptor, 1975. 21 May Feast day of St Godric, St Collen, St Andrew Bobola, and St The- ophilus of Corte. 1662 Charles II married Catherine de Braganza, daugh- ter of John IV of Portugal. 1674 John Sobieski was elected King of Po- land as John III. 1767 Townshend introduced taxes on imports of tea, glass, paper, and dyestuffs in American colonies to provide revenue for colonial administration. 1840 Britain claimed complete sovereignty over New Zealand. 1851 Gold was first discovered in Australia. 1894 The offi- cial opening of the Manchester Ship Canal tool place. 1927 Charles Lind- bergh completed the first solo non-stop flight across the Atlantic in his monoplane, The Spirit of St. Louis. 1946 A world wheat shortage led to bread rationing in Britain. Born King Philip II of Spain, 1527; Ale- xander Pope, English poet and satirist, 1688; Francis Egerton, Duke of Bridgwater, builder of Britain's first canal, 1736; Elizabeth Fry, Eng- lish prison reformer, 1780; Fats Waller, US jazz pianist and composer, 1904; Harold Robbins, US novelist, 1916. Died King Henry VI of England, 1471; Tomaso Campanella, Italian philosopher, 1639; James, Marquess of Montrose, Scottish general, 1650; Edward Montagu, Earl of Manchester, Parliamentarian leader in the English Civil War, 1671; Robert Harley, Earl of Oxford, British politician, 1724; Karl Wilhelm Scheele, Swedish chemist, 1786; Geoffrey de Havilland, British aircraft designer, 1965. 22 May Feast day of St Helen of Carnavon, St Rita of Cascia, St Julia of Corsica, St Aigulf of Bourges, St Romanus, Saints Castus and Aemili- us, St Humility, St Joachima de Mas, and St Quiteria. 853 A Greek expe- dition captured Damietta, in Egypt. 853 Olaf the White, son of the King of Norway, received the submission of Vikings and Danes in Ireland and made Dublin his capital. 1455 In the Wars of the Roses, Richard of York and the Nevilles attacked the court at St Albans, capturing Henry VI and killing Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset. 1498 A death sentence was pronounced on Savonarola, former Prior of St Mark's and effective ruler of Florence, who had been excommunicated in June 1497 for attempting to seek the deposition of Pope Alexander VI. 1912 The Reichstag (German parliament) was adjourned following Socialist attacks on German emperor. 1914 Britain acquired control of oil properties in Persian Gulf from Anglo-Persian Oil Company. 1923 Stanley Baldwin formed a Conservative ministry, with Neville Chamberlain as Chancellor of the Exchequer. 1972 US President Richard Nixon visited Moscow to discuss arms limitations with Soviet President Leonid Brezhnev. Born Richard Wagner, German com- poser, 1813; Aston Webb, English architect, 1849; Arthur Conan Doyle, English novelist, 1859; Laurence Olivier, English actor, 1907; Charles Aznavour, French singer, 1924; George Best, Irish footballer, 1946. Died Thomas Southerne, Irish playwright, 1746; Augustin Thierry, French his- torian, 1856; John French, Earl of Ypres, British soldier, 1925; Ernst Toller, German poet and playwright, 1939; Cecil Day Lewis, English poet, 1972; Rajiv Gandhi, Indian leader, assassinated, 1991. 23 May Feast day of Saints Montanus and Lucius, St William of Roches- ter, St Aldhelm, St Euphrosyne of Polotsk, St Ivo of Chartres, St Leon- tius of Rostov, St Desiderius of Vienne, and St John Baptist dei Rossi. 878 The Saxon King Alfred defeated the Danes at Edington; under the pea- ce of Wedmore, their leader, Guthrum, was baptized as a Christian. 1169 'The First Conquerors' landed in Ireland; they were Normans from Wales enlisted by Dermot MacMurrough to recover his kingdom of Leinster. 1430 Burgundian troops captured Joan of Arc and delivered her to the English. 1568 William of Orange with German mercenaries defeated a Spanish force under Count Aremberg at Heiligerlee; this action marked the beginning proper of the Revolt of the Netherlands. 1618 The Defenestration of Pra- gue, when the Regents, Martinitz and Slawata, were overthrown by the Bo- hemian rebels, began the Thirty Years' War. 1926 France proclaimed the Lebanon a republic. Born Tamerlane the Great, Mongol leader, 1335; Elias Ashmole, English antiquarian, 1617; Carl von Linnй (Linnaeus), Swedish botanist, 1707; William Hunter, Scottish anatomist and obstetrician, 1718; Friedrich Mesmer, Austrian physician, 1733; Otto Lilienthal, Ger- man aviator, 1848; Edmund Rubbra, English composer, 1901; Hugh Casson, British architect, 1910; Joan Collins, English actress, 1933. Died Ric- hard of Wallingford, Abbot of St Albans, 1335; Girolamo Savonarola, Flo- rentine priest, burned at the stake, 1498; William Kidd, Scottish pira- te, hanged, 1701; Leopold von Ranke, German historian, 1886; Henrik Ib- sen, Norwegian playwright, 1906. 24 May Feast day of St David of Scotland, St Vincent of Lerins, Saints Donatian and Rogation, and St Nicetas of Pereaslav. 1153 Malcolm IV ac- ceded to the Scottish throne. 1530 A list of heretical books was drawn up in London, England; Tyndale's Bible was burned. 1726 Voltaire landed in England on his liberation from the Bastille (he returned to France 1729). 1726 The first Circulating Library was opened by Allan Ramsay in Edinburgh. 1862 Westminster Bridge across the River Thames in London was opened. 1941 The British battleship HMS Hood was sunk by the Bismarck off Greenland. 1948 The USSR stopped road and rail traffic between Ber- lin and the West, forcing Western powers to organize airlifts. Born King Philip III of France, 1245; William Byrd, English composer, 1543; Willi- am Gilbert, English physician and early researcher into magnetism, 1540; Jean-Paul Marat, French revolutionary, 1743; Queen Victoria, 1819; Jo- seph Rowntree, social reformer and industrialist, 1836; Arthur Wing Pi- nero, English playwright, 1855; J C Smuts, South African soldier and po- litician, 1870; Bob Dylan, US singer and songwriter, 1941. Died Nicolaus Copernicus, Polish astronomer, 1543; Robert Cecil, Earl of Salisbury, English politician, 1612; Jonathan Wild, English criminal, hanged, 1725; John Dulles, US politician, 1959; 'Duke' Ellington, US jazz composer and musician, 1974; Hermione Gingold, English actress, 1987. 25 May Feast day of St Madeleine Barat, St Gregory VII, pope, St Mary Magdalen de Pazzi, St Urban, St Zenobius, St Leo of Mantenay, St Diony- sius of Milan, St Gennadius of Astorga, and St Bede. 1234 The Mongols took Kaifeng and destroyed the Chin dynasty. 1524 Henry VIII and Charles V formed a new league to support the Duke of Bourbon in a fresh attack on France. 1657 New Humble Petition and Advice created a new House of Lords, and increased Cromwell's power. 1657 Louis XIV put forward his name as a candidate for the Holy Roman Empire. 1659 Richard Cromwell re- signed; the Rump Parliament re-established the Commonwealth. 1694 The ministry in England was remodeled when William III dismissed Tories, ex- cept Godolphin and Danby, and introduced Whig Junta of Somers, Russell, Montague, and Wharton. 1911 Porfirio Diaz resigned as president of Mexi- co. 1914 The British House of Commons passed the Irish Home Rule bill. 1923 The independence of Transjordan under Amir Abdullah was proclaimed. 1953 Denationalisation of road transport in Britain. 1961 US President Kennedy presents an extra-ordinary state of Union message to Congress for increased funds urgently needed for US space, defense, and air prog- rams. Born John Stuart, Earl of Bute, Britain's first Scottish prime mi- nister, 1713; Edward George Bulwer Lytton, Lord Lytton, English nove- list, 1803; Ralph Waldo Emerson, US poet and essayist, 1803; Jacob Burc- khardt Swiss historian, 1818; Bйla Bartуk, Hungarian composer, 1881; Jo- sip Broz Tito, Yugoslavian soldier and president, 1892; Miles Davis, US jazz trumpeter, 1926; Ian McKellen, English actor, 1939. Died Bede, Eng- lish monk and historian, 735; Georges D'Amboise, French cardinal and po- litician, 1510; Gaspard Poussin, French painter, 1675; Pedro Caldйron de la Barca, Spanish playwright, 1681; Samuel Pepys, English diarist, 1703; Gustav Holst, English composer, 1934. 26 May Feast day of St Priscus, St Augustine of Canterbury, St Philip Neri, St Lambert of Venice, St Quadratus of Athens, and St Mariana of Quito. 1520 Charles V visited Henry VIII at Dover and Canterbury. 1521 The Edict of Worms imposed on Martin Luther the ban of the Empire. 1538 Jean Calvin was expelled from Geneva and settled in Strasbourg. 1659 Au- rangzeb formally becomes Mogul Emperor. 1798 Income tax was introduced in Britain, as a tax of 10% on all incomes over Ј200. 1805 Napoleon was crowned King of Italy in Milan Cathedral. 1834 Sikhs captured Peshawar. 1846 Robert Peel repealed the Corn Laws (royal assent given 26 June), splitting the Conservative Party. 1865 The surrender of the last Confe- derate army at Shreveport, near New Orleans, ended the American Civil War. 1924 Calvin Coolidge signed a bill limiting immigration into the US and entirely excluding the Japanese. Born Charles of Orleans, French po- et, 1391; Henry Vane the younger, English politician, 1613; William Pet- ty, English economist, 1623; Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, English writer, 1689; Edmond de Goncourt, French novelist, 1822; A E Housman, English poet, 1859; Princess Mary of Teck (Queen Mary, consort of George V), 1867; Al Jolson, US singer, 1886; John Wayne, US film actor, 1907; Peter Cushing, British actor, 1913. Died St Augustine, first archbishop of Canterbury, 604; Philip Neri, Italian priest, founder of the Oratory, 1595; Charles Mayo, US surgeon, 1922; Victor Herbert, US composer and conductor, 1924; Lincoln Ellsworth, US scientist and polar explorer, 1951. 27 May Feast day of St Julius the Veteran, St Eutropius of Orange, St Restituta of Sora, and St Melangel. 1063 Harold of Wessex began to con- quer Wales. 1199 Pope Innocent III imposed the first direct papal taxa- tion of Clergy. 1199 Death of Minamoto Yoritomo, first Shogun of Japan; his followers retained control of government but fought for supremacy. 1299 Peace was negotiated between Genoa and Venice, ending their war (since 1261) to control trade with the Byzantine Empire. 1719 Emperor Charles VI founded the Oriental Company in Vienna to compete with Dutch trade in the Orient. 1813 US forces occupied Fort St George, and the British abandoned the entire Niagara frontier. 1941 The German battles- hip Bismarck was sunk by the Royal Navy west of Brest. Born Amelia Bloo- mer, US feminist and dress reformer, 1818; Julia Ward Howe, US writer, 1819; Vincent D'Indy, French composer, 1851; Arnold Bennett, English no- velist, 1867; John Cockcroft, English physicist, 1897; Hubert Humphrey, US politician, 1911; Vincent Price, US film actor, 1911; Henry Kissin- ger, US politician, 1923. Died John Calvin, French religious reformer, 1564; Archibald Campbell, Marquess of Argyll, Scottish Covenanter, behe- aded, 1661; Marquise de Montespan, mistress of the French King Louis XIV, 1707; Niccolт Paganini, Italian violinist, 1840; Robert Koch, Ger- man bacteriologist, 1910; Jawalharlal Nehru, Indian politician, 1964. 28 May Feast day of St Bernard of Aosta, St Ignatius of Rostov, St Se- nator of Milan, St William of Gellone, St Germanus of Paris, and St Jus- tus of Urgel. 1358 In France the uprising known as the Jacquerie broke out - the peasants were protesting at their impoverished state after the ravages of the Hundred Years' War. 1539 Royal assent was given to an Act (the Six Articles of Religion) 'abolishing diversity of opinions' in England, after Henry VIII personally intervened in the Lords' debate to argue with the Reforming bishops. 1932 The IJselmeer was formed in the Netherlands, by the completion of a dam which enclosed the former Zuider Zee. 1956 France ceded former French settlements in India to the Indian Union. 1959 Britain announced the removal of controls on imports of many consumer goods from the dollar area, with increased import quotas of ot- her goods. 1961 The last journey of the Orient Express train, from Paris to Bucharest; it had been in operation for 78 years. Born King George I of Great Britain, 1660; Joseph Guillotin, French physician and revoluti- onary, 1738; William Pitt, British politician, 1759; Thomas Moore, Irish poet, 1779; Prosper Mйrimйe, French novelist, 1803; F W Maitland, Eng- lish historian, 1850; Ian Fleming, English novelist, 1908; Thora Hird, English actress, 1916; Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, German baritone, 1925. Died Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury, 1089; Edward Montagu, Earl of Sandwich, English admiral, 1672; Thomas Chippendale, English cabinet-ma- ker, 1779; Jean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz, Swiss oceanographer and marine zoologist, 1807; Noah Webster, US lexicographer, 1843; Henry Thomas Buckle, English historian, 1862; Lord John Russell, Earl Russell, Bri- tish politician, 1878; Alfred Adler, Austrian psychiatrist, 1937. 29 May Feast day of St Cyril of Caesarea, St Bernard of Montjoux, St Theodosia of Constantinople, St Maximinus of Trier, Saints Sisinnius, Martyrius, and Alexander, and Saints William, Stephen, Raymund, and the- ir Companions. 862 Riurick (of Jutland) founded the first dynasty of Princes of Russia at Novgorod. 1218 The Fifth Crusade landed outside Da- mietta, N Egypt. 1453 Mohammed II, founder of the Ottoman empire, captu- red Constantinople; the Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI was killed and the Greek Empire finally extinguished. Constantinople became the Ottoman capital. 1458 Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, defeated a Castilian fleet in the Channel. 1848 Wisconsin became a US state. 1940 The first British forces were evacuated from Dunkirk. 1947 The Indian constituent assembly outlawed 'untouchability'. Born King Charles II of Great Brita- in, 1630; Louis Jean Marie Daubenton, French naturalist, 1716; Patrick Henry, US politician, 1736; Lйon Bourgeois, French politician, 1851; Gilbert Keith Chesterton, English novelist and critic, 1874; Bob Hope, US actor and comedian, 1903; John Fitzgerald Kennedy, 35th president of the US, 1917. Died Bartholomew Diaz de Novaes, Portuguese navigator, 1500; David Beaton, Scottish politician, 1546; Cornelius Van Tromp, Dutch sailor, 1691; Humphry Davy, English scientist who invented a safe- ty lamp for miners, 1829; John Lothrop Motley, US historian and diplo- mat, 1877; W S Gilbert, English playwright and librettist, 1911. 30 May Feast day of St Hubert, St Joan of Arc, St Ferdinand, St Exupe- riantius of Ravenna, St Isaac of Constantinople, St Luke Kirby, St Ma- delgisilus, and St Walstan. 1431 Joan of Arc was burned as a heretic at Rouen, France. 1536 English King Henry VIII married Jane Seymour, his third wife. 1592 The Spanish defeated an English force under Sir John Norris at Cranon, Brittany. 1913 A peace treaty between Turkey and the Balkan states was signed in London, UK. 1925 The shooting of Chinese students by municipal police in Shanghai and other incidents in Canton provoked a Chinese boycott of British goods. 1929 The British Labour Party won the general election with 287 seats. 1948 The British Citi- zenship Act conferred the status of British subjects on all Commonwealth citizens. Born Peter the Great, tsar of Russia, 1672; Henry Addington, British politician, 1757; Peter Carl Fabergй, Russian goldsmith and je- weler, 1846; Howard Hawks, US film director, 1896; Benny Goodman, US bandleader, 1909. Died Christopher Marlowe, English playwright, 1593; Peter Paul Rubens, Flemish painter, 1640; Alexander Pope, English poet and satirist, 1744; Franзois Boucher, French painter, 1770; Voltaire, French author and philosopher, 1778; Boris Pasternak, Russian novelist and poet, 1960; Claude Rains, British-born film actor, 1967. 31 May Feast day of St Petronilla, Saints Cantius, Cantianus, Cantia- nella, and Protus, and St Mechtildi of Edelstetten. 1287 The Genoese de- feated the Venetian fleet off Acre and blockaded the coast of Outremer. 1902 The Peace of Vereeniging ended the Boer War, in which British casu- alties numbered 5,774 killed (and 16,000 deaths from disease) against 4,000 Boers killed in action. 1916 The Battle of Jutland began, in which Royal Navy losses exceeded those of the German fleet. 1942 Czech patri- ots assassinated Gestapo leader Heydrich. 1952 In the USSR, the Vol- ga-Don Canal was opened. 1961 South Africa became an independent repub- lic outside the Commonwealth, with C R Swart as president. Born Margaret Beaufort, consort of Henry VII of England, 1443; Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, 1443; Rudolphus Agricola, Dutch humanist, 1443; Guilio Albe- roni, Italian cardinal and politician, 1664; Karl August von Hardenberg, Prussian politician, 1750; Walt Whitman, US poet, 1819; Francis Young- husband, English explorer, 1863; William Heath Robinson, English illust- rator, 1872; Don Ameche, US film actor, 1908; Clint Eastwood, US film actor and director, 1930; Terry Waite, religious adviser to the Archbis- hop of Canterbury, 1939. Died Jacopo Tintoretto, Italian painter, 1594; Frederick William I of Prussia, 1740; Jean Cavalier, French Huguenot preacher and leader, 1740; Joseph Haydn, Austrian composer, 1809; Joseph Grimaldi, English clown, 1837; Walther Funk, German Nazi economist, 1960; Adolf Eichmann, Nazi leader, hanged as a war criminal, 1962. 1 June National Day of Tunisia. Feast day of St Gwen of Brittany, St Justin, St Nicomedes, St Ronan, St Whyte, St Wistan, St Symeon of Syra- cuse, St Caprasius of Lйrins, St Pamphilus of Caesarea, St Inigo, St Proculus the Soldier, St Proculus the Bishop, and St Theobald of Alba. 836 Viking raiders sacked London. 1485 Matthias of Hungary took Vienna in his conquest of Austria (from Frederick III) and made the city his capital. 1666 An English fleet under Lord Albemarle fought an inconclu- sive battle with the Dutch off the Dunes of Dunkirk. 1679 The Scottish Covenanters defeated Royal troops under Claverhouse at Drumclog. 1792 Kentucky became the 15th US state. 1796 Tennessee became the 16th US state. 1915 The first Zeppelin attack on London, UK, took place. 1946 Television licenses were issued in Britain for the first time; they cost Ј2. 1957 ERNIE drew the first premium bond prizes in Britain. 1958 Ice- land extended its fishery limits to 12 miles. Born Nicolas Carnot, French founder of thermodynamics, 1796; Brigham Young, US Mormon leader, 1801; Mikhail Glinka, Russian composer, 1803; John Drinkwater, English poet, 1882; Frank Whittle, English inventor who developed the jet engi- ne, 1907; Marilyn Monroe, 1926; Morgan Freeman, US film actor, 1937. Di- ed James Gillray, English caricaturist, 1815; James Buchanan, 15th pre- sident of the US, 1868; Hugh Walpole, English novelist, 1941; Leslie Ho- ward, British film actor, 1943; Ion Antonescu, Romanian dictator, execu- ted, 1946; Eric Partridge, British lexicographer, 1985. 2 June National Day of Italy. Feast day of St Erasmus, St Oda, St Atta- lus, Saints Marcellinus and Peter, St Eugenius I, pope, St Nicholas the Pilgrim, St Stephen of Sweden, and St Pothinus and his Companions. 1619 A treaty was signed between England and Holland, regulating the trade in the East between the English and Dutch East India Companies. 1627 Char- les I granted a charter of incorporation to the Guiana Company. 1627 The Duke of Buckingham sailed from Portsmouth with a fleet to aid the Hugue- nots in the defense of La Rochelle. 1780 The Gordon riots began in Lon- don, England, when Lord George Gordon headed a procession for presenting a petition to Parliament for repealing Catholic Relief act of 1778; Ro- man Catholic chapels were pillaged. 1793 The final overthrow of Giron- dins and arrest of Jacques Brissot began the Reign of Terror. 1916 The second battle of Ypres took place. 1949 Transjordan was renamed the Has- hemite Kingdom of Jordan. 1953 The coronation of Queen Elizabeth II took place in Westminster Abbey. 1989 In Tianenamen Square, Beijing, govern- ment troops massacred over 2,000 students who were peacefully demonstra- ting for political reform. Born John Sobieski, King of Poland, 1624; Thomas Hardy, English novelist and poet, 1840; Edward Elgar, English composer, 1857; Julian Huxley, English biologist, 1887; Johnny Weissmul- ler, US swimmer who played Tarzan in films, 1903; Barry Levinson, US film director, 1942. Died James Douglas, Earl of Morton, 1581; Giuseppe Garibaldi, Italian nationalist, 1882; Alexander Ostrovsky, Russian pla- ywright, 1886; Alfred Austin, English poet, 1913; Vita Sackville-West, English writer, 1962; Andrйs Segovia, Spanish classical guitarist, 1987; Rex Harrison, British actor, 1990. 3 June Feast day of Genesius of Clermont, St Kevin, St Charles Lwanga, St Isaac of Cordova, St Morand, St Cecilius, St Clothilde, St Joseph Mkasa, St Lucillian and his Companions, Saints Liphardus and Urbicius, and Saints Pergentinus and Laurentinus. 1098 The Crusaders took Antioch. 1162 Thomas … Becket was consecrated as Archbishop of Canterbury. 1665 The English fleet defeated the Dutch at the Battle of Lowestoft. 1942 US and Japanese naval forces began the Battle of Midway, in the Pacific. 1946 King Umberto II left Italy and Alcide de Gasperi, the premier, be- came provisional head of state. 1959 Singapore became self-governing. Born William Dampier, English navigator and adventurer, 1652; James Hut- ton, Scottish geologist, 1726; Sydney Smith, English clergyman and jour- nalist, 1771; Richard Cobden, English economist and political reformer, 1804; William Flinders Petrie, English archeologist, 1853; George V, 1865; Wilfrid Thesiger, English explorer and writer, 1910. Died John Aylmer, bishop of London, 1594; William Harvey, English physician who described the circulation of the blood, 1657; Georges Bizet, French com- poser, 1875; Johann Strauss, Austrian composer, 1899; Franz Kafka, Aust- rian novelist, 1924; Mikhail Ivanovich Kalinin, Russian politician, 1946; Arthur Ransome, English children's writer, 1967. 4 June Feast day of St Edfrith, St Ninnoc, St Petroc, St Metrophanes, St Francis Caracciolo, St Optatus of Milevis, St Quirinus of Siscia, and St Vincentia Gerosa. 1039 Gruffyd ap Llewelyn, King of Gwynned and Po- wys, defeated an English attack. 1210 King John embarked on an expediti- on to Ireland, enforcing his authority there. 1520 Henry VIII and Fran- cis I met at the Field of the Cloth of Gold, between Gravelines and Ard- res; on 6 June they signed a treaty confirming the marriage contract of Mary Tudor and the Dauphin and ending French interference in Scotland. 1878 A secret Anglo-Turkish agreement was made to check Russian advance in Asia Minor, by which Britain promised to defend Turkey against furt- her attack and Britain was allowed to occupy Cyprus. 1944 The Fifth Army entered Rome. 1956 Egypt declared it would not extend the Suez Canal Company's concession after its expiry in 1968. 1959 US-owned sugar mills and plantations in Cuba were expropriated. Born Franзois Quesnay, French economist and physician, 1694; George III, 1738; John Scott, later Earl of Eldon, English lawyer and politician, 1751; Harriet Beecher Stowe, US novelist, 1811; Garnet Wolseley, English soldier, 1833; Christopher Coc- kerell, English engineer who invented the hovercraft, 1910. Died William Juxon, archbishop of Canterbury, 1663; Giovanni Casanova, Italian adven- turer, 1798; Nassau William Senior, English economist, 1864; Kaiser Wil- liam II, 1941; Emily Davidson, English suffragist who threw herself in front of the King's horse during the Derby, 1913. 5 June National Day of Denmark. Feast day of St Boniface, St Dorotheus of Tyre, St Tudno, and St Sanctius. 1912 US marines landed in Cuba. 1916 HMS Hampshire sank off the Orkneys, with Lord Kitchener aboard. 1945 The Allied Control Commission assumed control throughout Germany, which was divided into four occupation zones. 1947 US Secretary of State George Marshall called for a European Recovery Program (Marshall Aid). 1967 The Six-Day War broke out between Israel and the Arab states. 1968 Robert Kennedy was assassinated in a hotel in Los Angeles, US while campaigning for the US presidency. 1970 Tonga became independent within the Common- wealth. 1975 The Suez Canal was reopened after being closed for eight years. Born Nicolas Poussin, French painter, 1594; Adam Smith, Scottish economist, 1723; Pancho Villa, Mexican revolutionary, 1878; John Maynard Keynes, English economist, 1883; Federico GarcЎa Lorca, Spanish playw- right and poet, 1898; Margaret Drabble, English novelist, 1939; David Hare, British playwright, 1947. Died Orlando Gibbons, English organist and composer, 1625; Henry Sacheverell, English political preacher, 1724; Carl von Weber, German composer, 1826; Stephen Crane, US poet and nove- list, 1900; Horatio, Lord Kitchener, English soldier, 1916; Henri Gaudi- er-Brzeska, French artist, 1916; Georges Feydeau, French dramatist, 1921. 6 June National Day of Sweden. Feast Day of St Jarlath, St Gudwal, St Ceratius, St Norbert, Saints Primus and Felician, St Claude of Besanзon, St Eustorgius II of Milan, and St Philip the Deacon. 1457 Polish forces took Marienburg; the Teutonic Knights then made Kцnigsberg their headqu- arters. 1636 Puritan American colonist Roger Williams, banished from Massachusetts Bay Colony, founded Providence, Rhode Island, a colony with complete religious freedom. 1664 War broke out between England and Holland in the colonies and at sea. 1797 Napoleon Bonaparte founded the Ligurian Republic in Genoa. 1820 Caroline, Princess of Wales, whom Geor- ge IV wished to divorce, triumphantly entered London, demanding her re- cognition as Queen. 1844 The Factory Act in Britain restricted female workers to a 12-hour day; children between eight and 13 years were limi- ted to six-and-a-half hours. Born Diego y Velasquez, Spanish painter, 1599; Pierre Corneille, French playwright, 1606; Henry Newbolt, English poet, 1862; Robert Falcon Scott, English Antarctic explorer, 1868; Tho- mas Mann, German novelist, 1875; Ninette de Valois, Irish ballet dancer, 1898; Bjцrn Borg, Swedish tennis player, 1956; Mike Gatting, English cricketer, 1958. Died St Norbert of Xanten, archbishop of Magdeburg, 1134; George Anson, English sailor and explorer, 1762; Jeremy Bentham, English philosopher and jurist, 1832; James Agate, English critic and essayist, 1947; Carl Gustav Jung, Swiss psychiatrist, 1961; Robert Ken- nedy, US politician, assassinated, 1968. 7 June Feast day of St Meriasek, St Robert of Newminster, St Anthony Gianelli, St Gottschalk, St Vulflagius, St Willibald, St Colman of Dro- more, and St Paul I of Constantinople. 1494 By the Treaty of Tordesil- las, Spain and Portugal agreed to divide the New World between themsel- ves: Portugal was to have all lands east of a line north and south drawn 370 leagues west of Cape Verde, Spain to have the rest. 1497 English King Henry VII defeats the Cornish rebels under Lord Audley at Blackhe- ath. 1523 Gustavus Vasa was elected Gustavus I of Sweden. 1535 John Fis- her, Bishop of Rochester, is tried for treason (he was executed on 22 June). 1672 Dutch Admiral de Ruyter was successful in action against the combined English and French fleets in Southwold Bay. 1832 The Reform Bill became law; over 140 seats were redistributed, and in the boroughs all antiquated forms of franchise were eliminated and the franchise was extended to include leaseholders paying minimum of Ј10 rent per annum, while in counties the 40-shilling freehold qualification was retained and certain lease-holders acquired the vote. Born John Rennie, Scottish engineer, 1761; Alexander Pushkin, Russian novelist, playwright, and po- et, 1799; James Young Simpson, Scottish obstetrician who pioneered the use of anesthetics, 1811; Pietro Annigoni, Italian painter, 1910; Paul Gauguin, French painter, 1848; James Ivory, US film director, 1928. Died Robert I 'the Bruce', king of Scotland, 1329; David Cox, English pain- ter, 1859; Jean Harlow, US film actress, 1937; Dorothy Parker, US wri- ter, 1967; E M Forster, English novelist, 1970; Henry Miller, US nove- list, 1980. 8 June Feast day of St Medard, St William of York, St Cloud of Metz, and St Maximinius of Aix. 1042 Harthacnut, King of England and Denmark, died; he was succeeded in England by his adopted heir, Edward the Con- fessor, and in Denmark by Magnus, King of Norway. 1536 The English Par- liament met and settled the succession on the future children of Henry VIII by Jane Seymour; the Princesses Mary and Elizabeth were declared illegitimate. 1919 Nicaragua asked the US for protection against Costa Rica. 1934 Oswald Mosley addressed a mass meeting of the British Union of Fascists at Olympia. 1939 George VI visited the US at the end of his tour of Canada; he was the first British monarch to do so. 1941 British and Free French Forces invaded Syria to prevent the establishment of Axis bases. 1965 US troops were authorized to engage in offensive opera- tions in Vietnam. Born Giovanni Cassini, Italian astronomer, 1625; John Smeaton, English engineer, 1724; Robert Stevenson, English engineer, 1772; Robert Schumann, German composer, 1810; John Everett Millais, Eng- lish painter, 1829; Frank Lloyd Wright, US architect, 1869. Died Chris- tiaan Huygens, Dutch physicist and astronomer, 1695; Thomas Paine, Eng- lish author of The Rights of Man, 1809; Sarah Siddons, English actress, 1831; Joseph Paxton, English architect, 1865; 'George Sand' (Amandine Dudevant, born Dupin), French novelist, 1876; Gerard Manley Hopkins, English poet, 1889; Gerhart Hauptmann, German novelist and playwright, 1946. 9 June Feast day of St Columba, St Ephraem, St Richard of Ambria, St Vincent of Agen, and St Pelagia of Antioch. 1572 A new Turkish fleet put to sea against Don John of Austria to complete the capture of Cyprus. 1788 English botanist Joseph Banks founded the Africa Association for arousing interest in exploration and trade. 1885 The Treaty of Tientsin between France and China recognized the French protectorate in Annam. 1934 Cartoon character Donald Duck first appeared. 1959 The USS George Washington was launched, the first submarine to be armed with ballistic missiles. 1992 International leaders signed the Biodiversity Treaty at the Rio Earth Summit. Born Peter the Great, tsar of Russia, 1672; George Stephenson, English locomotive engineer, 1781; Elizabeth Garrett Ander- son, English physician, 1836; Cole Porter, US composer of musicals, 1893. Died William Maitland of Lethingdon, Scottish politician, 1573; William Lilly, English astrologer, 1681; Charles Dickens, English nove- list, 1870; Cochise, American Apache leader, 1874; Maxwell William Ait- ken, Lord Beaverbrook, Canadian-born politician and newspaper proprie- tor, 1964; Sybil Thorndike, English actress, 1976. 10 June Feast day of St Ithamar, St Bogumilus, St Landericus of Paris, and St Getulius and his Companions. 1829 The Oxford team won the first-ever Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race. 1891 L Starr Jameson became administrator of the South Africa Company's territories. 1893 Alarmed at Belgian advances in the Congo, France sent an occupying force to fores- tall further annexations. 1899 US Congress appointed a canal commission to report on routes through Panama. 1942 The Czech village of Lidice was destroyed and every man in it killed in reprisal for the assassination of Nazi leader Richard Heydrich. 1943 The ball-point pen was patented in the US. Born James Francis Edward Stuart (the Old Pretender), 1688; John Dollond, English optician, 1706; Gustave Courbet, French painter, 1819; Henry Morton Stanley, US journalist and explorer, 1840; G E Buckle, Eng- lish newspaper editor, 1854; Saul Bellow, US novelist, 1915; Prince Phi- lip, Duke of Edinburgh, 1921; Judy Garland, US film actress and singer, 1922; Maurice Sendak, US illustrator, 1928. Died Luis Vaz de Camoens, Portuguese poet, 1580; Alessandro Algardi, Italian sculptor, 1654; Tho- mas Hearne, English antiquary and keeper of the Bodleian Library, 1735; Andrйe Ampиre, French physicist, 1836; 'Pierre Loti' (Julien Viaud), French novelist, 1923; Frederick Delius, English composer, 1934; Spencer Tracey, US film actor, 1967. 11 June Feast day of St Barnabas, Saints Felix and Fortunatus, and St Parisio. 1509 Henry VIII marries Catherine of Aragon, his first wife. 1727 George I became king of Great Britain. 1891 At an Anglo-Portuguese convention on territories north and south of Zambesi, Portugal assigns Barotseland to Britain; Nyasaland is subsequently proclaimed a British Protectorate. 1895 Britain annexed Togoland to block Transvaal's access to the sea. 1955 US President Eisenhower proposed financial and techni- cal aid to all non-Communist countries to develop atomic energy. 1963 Constantine Karamanlis, the Greek premier, resigned in protest against King Paul's state visit to Britain. 1964 Greece rejected direct talks with Turkey over Cyprus. Born Barnabe Googe, English poet, 1540; Ben Jonson, English playwright, 1572; John Constable, English painter, 1776; Millicent Garrett Fawcett, English suffragist, 1847; Mrs Humphrey Ward (Mary Augusta Arnold), English novelist, 1851; Jacques Cousteau, French oceanographer, 1910; Athol Fugard, South African dramatist and director, 1932. Died Kenelm Digby, English writer and diplomat, 1665; Louis, Duc de Vendфme, French soldier, 1712; John Franklin, English Arctic explo- rer, 1847; Clemens, Prince Metternich, Austrian politician, 1859; Frank Brangwyn, British painter, 1956; Alexander Kerensky, Russian politician, 1970; John Wayne, US film actor, 1979. 12 June National Day of the Philippines. Feast day of St Basilides, St Eskil, St Leo II, St Odulf, St Onuphrius, St Ternan, St Peter of Mount Athos, St Antonia, St John of Sahagun, and St Paula Frassinetti. 1088 William II suppressed a revolt in England led by Odo of Bayeux, Bishop of Rochester, who was supporting Robert Curthose. 1667 The Dutch fleet under Admiral de Ruyter burned Sheerness, sailed up the River Medway, raided Chatham dockyard, and escaped with the royal barge, the Royal Charles; the nadir of English naval power. 1683 The Rye House Plot, to assassinate King Charles II and his brother James, Duke of York, was discovered. 1901 A Cuban convention making the country virtually a pro- tectorate of the US was incorporated in the Cuban constitution as a con- dition of the withdrawal of US troops. 1934 Political parties banned in Bulgaria. 1964 Nelson Mandela and seven others were sentenced to life imprisonment for acts of sabotage in the Rivonia trial, Pretoria. Born Harriet Martineau, English writer, 1802; Charles Kingsley, English nove- list, 1819; Anthony Eden, Viscount Avon, British politician, 1897; Geor- ge Bush, 41st president of the US, 1924; Anne Frank, Jewish Dutch dia- rist, 1929. Died James, Duke of Berwick, English-born French general, 1734; William Collins, English poet, 1759; Thomas Arnold, English scho- lar and head of Rugby School, 1842; John Ireland, English composer, 1962; Billy Butlin, English vacation-camp entrepreneur, 1980; Marie Ram- bert, British ballet dancer and teacher, 1982. 13 June Feast day of St Antony of Padua, St Felicula, St Aquilina, and St Triphyllius. 1849 Communist riots in Paris were easily defeated and led to repressive legislation. 1866 The US 14th Amendment incorporated the Civil Rights Act and gave states the choice of Negro enfranchisement or reduced representation in Congress. 1900 The Boxer Rebellion began in China against Europeans. 1942 British forces lost 230 tanks in desert fighting. 1944 The first flying bomb was dropped on London, UK. 1956 The last British troops left the Suez Canal base. 1961 Austria refused an application by Archduke Otto of Hapsburg to return as a private indivi- dual. Born Richard Barnfield, English poet, 1574; Thomas Arnold, English scholar, head of Rugby school, 1795; James Clerk Maxwell, Scottish phy- sicist, 1831; William Butler Yeats, Irish poet, 1865; Peter Scudamore, British jockey, 1958. Died Alexander the Great, 323 BC; St Antonio of Padua, 1231; Arcangelo Corelli, Italian composer, 1713; Henry Seagrave, British racing driver, 1930; Jesse Boot, English pharmacist, drug manu- facturer, and philanthropist, 1931; Benny Goodman, US bandleader, 1986. 14 June Feast day of St Dogmael, Saints Valerius and Rufinus, and St Methodius I of Constantinople. 1380 In the Peasants' Revolt, the rebels occupying London killed Archbishop Sudbury, the Chancellor, and Robert Hales, the Treasurer. 1404 Glendower, having won control of Wales, assu- mes the title of Prince of Wales and holds a parliament. 1645 In the English Civil War, Oliver Cromwell defeated the Royalists at the Battle of Naseby, Northamptonshire. 1800 Napoleon Bonaparte defeated an Austri- an army at the Battle of Marengo and reconquers Italy. 1940 In World War II, German forces entered Paris. 1960 French President de Gaulle renewed his offer to the Algerian provisional government to negotiate a cea- se-fire, to which Front de la Libйration Nationale agrees, but rejects subsequent French conditions. 1962 The European Space Research Organisa- tion was established at Paris. Born Charles Augustin Coulomb, French physicist, 1736; Henry Keppel, British admiral, 1809; Bernard Bosanquet, English philosopher, 1848; Che Guevara, Argentinian communist revolutio- nary, 1928; Steffi Graf, German tennis player, 1969. Died Henry Vane the younger, English politician, executed after the Restoration for his par- liamentarian activities, 1662; Edward Fitzgerald, English poet and translator, 1883; Jerome Klapka Jerome, English novelist, 1927; Gilbert Keith Chesterton, English author, 1936; John Logie Baird, Scottish in- ventor who developed television, 1946; Jorge Luis Borges, Argentinian author, 1986; Vincent Hamlin, US cartoonist, 1993. 15 June Official birthday of Queen Elizabeth II. Feast day of St Tril- lo, St Vitus and his Companions, St Bardo, St Aleydia, St Germaine Cou- sin of Pibrac, St Hesychius of Durostorum, St Landelinus, St Edburga of Winchester, St Tatian Dulas, and St Orsiesus. 1520 Pope Leo X excommuni- cated Martin Luther by the bull Exsurge. 1658 The Mogul emperor Aurang- zeb imprisoned his father the Shah, after winning a battle at Samgarh. 1672 The Sluices were opened in Holland to save Amsterdam from the French. 1836 Arkansas became the 25th state of the US. 1855 Stamp duty on British newspapers was abolished. 1869 Celluloid was patented in the US. 1954 The Convention People's Party, led by Kwame Nkrumah, won the Gold Coast elections. 1977 Spain had its first general elections since 1936. Born Edward (the Black Prince), 1330; St Francesco de Paolo, 1416; Joannes Argyropoulos, Greek scholar, 1416; Thomas Randolph, English poet and playwright, 1605; Edvard Grieg, Norwegian composer, 1843; Richard Baker, English broadcaster, 1925. Died Wat Tyler, English rebel leader, 1381; Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, 1467; Marguerite De Launay, Ba- ronne Staal, French writer, 1750; James Knox Polk, 11th president of the US, 1849; Evelyn Underhill, English poet and mystic, 1941. 16 June Feast day of St Cyricus, St Ismael, St Aurelian, St John Fran- cis Regis, Saints Cyr and Julitta, St Benno of Meissen, St Lutgarde, Sa- ints Ferreolus and Ferrutio, and St Tychon of Amathus. 1586 Mary Queen of Scots recognized Philip II of Spain as her heir. 1745 British troops took Cape Breton Island and subsequently Louisburg, at the mouth of the St Lawrence River. 1779 Spain declared war on Britain (after France had undertaken to assist in the recovery of Gibraltar and Florida), and the siege of Gibraltar began. 1836 In Britain, the formation of the London Working Men's Association began the Chartist Movement. 1871 The Univer- sity Test Acts allowed students to enter Oxford and Cambridge without religious tests. 1972 Burglars were caught breaking into the Democratic Party headquarters in the Watergate Building, Washington DC, US. 1977 Leonid Brezhnev became president of the USSR. Born John Cheke, English classical scholar, 1514; King Gustav V of Sweden, 1858; Stan Laurel, English-born US film comedian, 1890; Enoch Powell, British politician, 1912; Giacomo Agostini, Italian motorcycle champion, 1942. Died Roger van der Weyden, Flemish painter, 1464; John Churchill, Duke of Marlboro- ugh, English general, 1722; Guilio Alberoni, Italian-born Spanish poli- tician and cardinal, 1752; Elmer Ambrose Sperry, US inventor, 1930; Mar- garet Bondfield, British politician and labor-unionist, 1953. 17 June National day of Iceland. Feast day of St Moling, St Adulf, St Nectan, St Botulf, St Alban, St Avitus, St Bessarion, St Hypatius, St Rainerius of Pisa, St Emily de Vialai, St Hervй, Saints Nicander and Marcian, and Saints Teresa and Sanchia of Portugal. 1128 Henry I's daug- hter, Matilda, widow of Henry V, married Geoffrey Plantagenet of Anjou; she was recognized in England as her father's heir. 1579 Francis Drake proclaimed England's sovereignty over New Albion (California). 1617 Ja- mes I met his Scottish Parliament. His proposal that the Scottish lords should surrender to the Crown their hereditable jurisdictions met with vigorous opposition, but the five Articles of Religion, for introducing Anglican principles to Scottish worship were endorsed. 1775 In the Revo- lutionary War, British troops won a victory at Bunker Hill. 1940 Russian troops occupied the Baltic states. Born Edward I, 1239; Pedro Calderуn de la Barca, Spanish playwright, 1600; Charles XII of Sweden, 1682; John Wesley, English evangelist, 1703; Charles Franзois Gounod, French compo- ser, 1818; William Crookes, English chemist, 1832; Igor Stravinsky, Rus- sian composer, 1882. Died John Sobieski, king of Poland, 1696; Joseph Addison, English essayist and poet, 1719; Claude, Duc de Villars, French soldier, 1734; Prosper Jolyot de Crйbillon, French playwright, 1762; Ed- ward Burne-Jones, English painter, 1898; Annie S Swan (Mrs Burnett Smith), Scottish novelist, 1943; Imre Nagy, Hungarian prime minister, executed, 1958. 18 June Feast day of Saints Mark and Marcellian, St Amandus of Borde- aux, St Eliisabeth of Schцnau, and St Gregory Barbarigo. 860 Vikings from Russia were repulsed in an attack on Constantinople. 1429 The French, led by Joan of Arc, defeated the English at the Battle of Patay. 1633 Charles I was crowned King of Scotland at Edinburgh. 1815 The Duke of Wellington and Gebhard von Blьcher defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo. 1928 US aviator Amelia Earhart became the first woman to fly across the Atlantic. 1953 A republic was proclaimed in Egypt, with Gene- ral M Neguib as president. 1979 US President Jimmy Carter and and USSR President Leonid Brezhnev signed the SALT-2 arms limitation treaty at Vienna's Hofburg Palace. Born Robert Stewart, later Viscount Castlere- agh, Irish politician, 1769; Edouard Daladier, French politician, 1884; Nikolaus Horthy de Nagybбnya, Hungarian politician, 1868; George Mallo- ry, English mountaineer, 1886; Ian Carmichael, English actor, 1920; Isa- bella Rosselini, Italian film actress, 1952. Died John Hampden, English patriot and politician, 1643; Andrew Jackson, 7th president of the US, 1845; George Grote, English historian and politician, 1871; Samuel But- ler, English novelist, 1902; Roald Amundsen, Norwegian polar explorer, lost this day in the Arctic, 1928; Maxim Gorky, Russian author, 1936. 19 June Feast day of Saints Gervase and Protase, St Juliana Falconieri, St Romuald, St Boniface of Querfurt, St Deodatus of Nevers, and St Odo of Cambrai. 1464 An ordinance of Louis XI in France created the poste, organizing relays of horses on the main roads for the king's business. 1754 The Anglo-French war broke out in North America when a force under George Washington skirmished with French troops near Fort Duquesne. 1769 Hyder Ali of Mysore compelled the British at Madras to sign a treaty of mutual assistance. 1809 Curwen's Act was passed in Britain, to prevent the sale of Parliamentary seats, thus decreasing the number of seats which the British government can manipulate for its regular supporters. 1829 Robert Peel's Act was passed, to establish a new police force in London, UK, and its suburbs. 1867 Emperor Maximilian was executed in Me- xico. 1917 The British royal family renounced German names and titles, having adopted the name of Windsor. 1965 Ben Bella, President of Alge- ria, was deposed; Houari Boumйdienne headed a revolutionary council. Born James VI of Scotland and I of England, 1566; Thomas Fuller, English antiquarian and clergyman, 1608; Blaise Pascal, French mathematician, 1623; Fйlicitй Robert de Lamennais, French writer, 1783; Douglas, Earl Haig, British field-marshal, 1861; Ernst Chain, German-born British bac- teriologist who developed penicillin, 1906; Salman Rushdie, British no- velist, 1947. Died Alberico Gentili, Italian political writer, 1608; William Sherlock, English prelate, 1707; Ambrose Philips, English poet, 1749; Joseph Banks, English botanist, 1820; John Dalberg, Lord Acton, English historian, 1902; J M Barrie, Scottish author of Peter Pan, 1937. 20 June Feast day of Edward the Martyr, St Alban, St Govan, St John of Matera, St Silverius, pope, St Bain, and St Adalbert of Magdeburg. 840 Vikings sailed up the Seine as far as Rouen, for the first time. 1530 The Diet of Augsburg met in the presence of Charles V, who was determi- ned to exterminate heresy; Philip Melanchthon stated the Lutheran case, since Martin Luther was under the ban of the Empire. 1756 Over 140 Bri- tish subjects were imprisoned in a cell ('The Black Hole of Calcutta'); only 23 came out alive. 1789 In France, the third estate took the Tennis Court oath, undertaking not to depart until a constitution was drawn up. 1791 Louis XVI attempted to leave France, but was turned back at Varen- nes and taken to Paris. 1837 On the death of William IV, Queen Victoria succeeded to the British throne. 1837 Hanover was automatically separa- ted from Britain, as Salic Law forbids female succession, and the throne was taken by Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, the eldest surviving son of George III. 1837 Natal Republic was founded by Dutch settlers and a Constitution was proclaimed. Born Adam Ferguson, Scottish philosopher and historian, 1723; John Costello, Irish politician, 1891; Jacques Of- fenbach, German-born French composer, 1819; Catherine Cookson, English novelist, 1906; Errol Flynn, Australian-born US film actor, 1909; Step- hen Frears, English film director, 1941. Died Willem Barents, Dutch exp- lorer, 1597; Emmanuel Joseph Sieyиs, French revolutionary leader, 1836; William IV, 1837; Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Russian composer, 1908; Panc- ho Villa, Mexican revolutionary leader, assassinated, 1923; Bernard Ba- ruch, US financier, 1965. 21 June Feast day of St Aloysius Gonzaga, St Leufred, St Mewan, St En- gelmund, St John Rigby, St Eusebius of Samosata, and St Leutfridus. 1661 The Peace of Kardis was signed between Russia and Sweden, ending the northern war; Russia abandoned all claims to Livonia. 1788 The US cons- titution came into force, when ratified by the 9th state, New Hampshire. 1798 British General Gerard Lake defeated Irish rebels at Vinegar Hill and entered Wexford, ending the Irish Rebellion. 1813 The Duke of Wel- lington completely routed the French at Vittoria, forcing the Spanish king, Napoleon's brother Joseph, to return to France. 1827 Robert Peel reformed English criminal law, by reducing the number of capital offen- ses, abolishing the immunity of the clergy from arrest in cases of felo- ny, and by defining the law of offenses against property in a simplified form. 1887 Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee. 1887 Britain annexed Zulu- land, blocking the attempt of Transvaal to gain communication with the coast. 1919 The German fleet was scuttled in Scapa Flow, in the Orkneys. 1942 German forces under Field-Marshal Rommel captured Tobruk. 1970 Bra- zil won the World Cup for the third time. Born Increase Mather, American clergyman and president of Harvard, 1639; William Stubbs, English histo- rian, 1825; Claude Auchinleck, British field-marshal, 1884; Jean-Paul Sartre, French philosopher, novelist, and playwright, 1905; Jane Rus- sell, US film actress, 1920; Franзoise Sagan, French novelist, 1935. Di- ed Edward III, 1377; John Skelton, English poet, 1529; Sebastiano del Piombo, Italian painter, 1547; John Smith, Virginian colonist, 1631; Inigo Jones, English architect and stage designer, 1652; Lord William Russell, English politician, 1683; Alexius Petrovich, son of Peter the Great, died in prison, 1718; Charles, Viscount Townshend, English poli- tician, 1738; George Hepplewhite, English cabinet-maker, 1786; Friedrich Froebel, German educator, 1852; Jean-Edouard Vuillard, French painter, 1940. 22 June Feast day of St Acacius, Saints John Fisher and Thomas More, St Paulinus of Nola, St Nicetas of Remesiana, and St Eberhard of Salzburg. 1377 Richard II became king of England. 1671 Turkey declared war on Po- land. 1679 The Duke of Monmouth subdued an insurrection of Scottish Co- venanters at Bothwell Bridge. 1826 The Pan-American Congress met in Pa- nama under the influence of Simon Bolivar in an unsuccessful effort to unite the American Republics. 1894 Dahomey was proclaimed a French Colo- ny. 1907 In Britain, the Northern Line was opened on the London Underg- round. Born Andrй-Hercule de Fleury, French cardinal, 1653; Jean Char- din, French painter, 1699; Jacques Delille, French poet, 1738; Giuseppe Mazzini, Italian patriot, 1805; H Rider Haggard, English novelist, 1856; John Hunt, English mountaineer, 1910; Peter Pears, English tenor, 1910; Prunella Scales, English actress, 1932; Meryl Streep, US film actress, 1949. Died Roger I, king of Sicily, 1101; Niccolт Machiavelli, Italian politician and diplomat, 1527; Jane Shore, mistress of Edward IV, 1527; St John Fisher, bishop of Rochester, beheaded, 1535; Josiah Child, Eng- lish merchant, 1699; Walter de la Mare, English author, 1956; Fred Asta- ire, US dancer and film actor, 1987. 23 June National Day of Luxembourg. Feast day of St Cyneburg, St Et- heldreda, St Agrippina, St Lietbertus, St Joseph Cafasso, and St Thomas Garnet. 1611 English navigator Henry Hudson and eight others were cast adrift by mutineers; the mutineers returned to England, but Hudson and his companions were never seen again. 1757 British troops under Robert Clive captured Plassey, in Bengal, and recovered Calcutta. 1934 Saudi Arabia and the Yemen signed a peace agreement after a war of six weeks. 1935 British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden offered Benito Mussolini concessions over Abyssinia, which he rejected. 1951 Guy Burgess and Do- nald Maclean, 'missing diplomats', fled to the USSR. 1952 The US Air Force bombed hydroelectric plants in North Korea. Born John Banйr, Swe- dish general, 1596; Giovanni Battista Vico, Italian philosopher, 1668; Josephine de Beauharnais, wife of Napoleon, 1763; Anna Akhmatova, Russi- an poet, 1889; Jean Anouilh, French playwright, 1910; John Habgood, arc- hbishop of York, 1927. Died Vespasian, Roman emperor, AD 79; Pedro de Mendoza, Spanish explorer, 1537; John Aubrey, English antiquary, 1697; Hester Lucy Stanhope, English traveler, 1839; Cecil Sharp, English col- lector of folk songs, 1924. 24 June Feast day of St John the Baptist, St Bartholomew of Farne, St Simplicius of Autun, and St Ralph of Bourges. 1245 Pope Innocent sent John de Plano Carpinis, a friar minor, to the court of the Great Khan, at Karakorum; this embassy led to the establishment of Christian missi- ons in China until c. 1368. 1277 English King Edward I began his first Welsh campaign following Llewelyn's refusal to do homage. 1314 Robert the Bruce defeated Edward II at Bannockburn and so completed his expul- sion of the English from Scotland. 1535 Charles V leads an expedition to conquer Tunis from Barbarossa, with a fleet commanded by Andrea Doria. Charles restored the Bey, Mulai Hassan (deposed by the Turks in 1534) and completed the Spanish conquest of the North African coast (begun in 1494). 1559 The Elizabethan Prayer Book was first used. 1812 Napoleon crossed the River Niemen and entered Russian territory. 1917 The Russian Black Sea fleet mutinied at Sebastopol. 1956 Colonel Nasser was elected President of Egypt. Born Theodore Beza, French religious reformer, 1519; Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, English explorer, 1532; St John of the Cross (Juan de Yepez y Alvarez), 1542; John Churchill, Duke of Marlboro- ugh, 1650; Horatio, Lord Kitchener, British soldier, 1850; William Pen- ney. British physicist, 1909; Juan Fangio, Argentinian racing driver, 1911; Fred Hoyle, English astronomer, 1915; Claude Chabrol, French film director, 1930. Died Ferdinand I, king of Castile and Leon, 1065; Lucre- zia Borgia, duchess of Ferrara, 1519; John Partridge, English astrolo- ger, 1715; Stephen Grover Cleveland, 22nd and 24th president of the US, 1908; Rex Warner, British novelist, 1986. 25 June Feast day of St Adalbert, St Febronia, St Maximus of Turin, St Eurosia, St Gohard, St Gallicanus, St Prosper of Reggio, St Prosper of Aquitaine, St Moloc, St Thea, and St William of Vercelli. 1524 The Pea- sants' Revolt in southern Germany began at Stьhlingen on the estates of Count von Lupfen. The rebels demanded the abolition of enclosures and feudal services. 1646 The surrender of Oxford to the Roundheads virtual- ly signified the end of the English Civil War. 1788 Virginia became the 10th state of the US. 1867 The first patent for barbed wire was taken out in Ohio, US. 1876 US soldier George Custer and his 264 men were kil- led by Sioux Indians at the Battle of the Little Big Horn, Montana. 1975 Mozambique achieved independence from Portugal. Born John Horne Tooke, English politician, 1736; Tsar Nicholas I 1796; Lord Louis Mountbatten of Burma, 1900; George Orwell, English essayist and novelist, 1903; Sid- ney Lumet, US film director, 1924. Died Anthony Woodville, 2nd Earl Ri- vers, English politician, executed, 1483; John Marston, English playw- right, 1634; George Custer, US soldier, 1876; Margaret Oliphant, English novelist, 1897; Laurence Alma-Tadema, English painter, 1912; Tony Han- cock, English comedian, 1968. 26 June Feast day of Saints Salvius and Superius, Saints John and Paul, St Anthelmus, bishop, St Maxentius, and St Vigilius of Trent. 1483 Ric- hard, Duke of Gloucester, began to rule as Richard III, having deposed his nephew, Edward V; the latter and his brother, Richard, Duke of York, were soon afterward murdered in the Tower of London. 1519 Martin Lut- her's public disputation with Johann Eck on doctrine began at Leipzig. 1849 The British Navigation Acts were finally repealed. 1917 The first US contingents arrived in France to fight WWI. 1937 Spanish rebels took Santander. 1937 The Duke of Windsor married Mrs Wallis Simpson in Fran- ce. 1960 Madagascar was proclaimed independent as the Malagasy Republic. 1960 British Somaliland became independent; it joined Somalia on 27. 1962 The Portuguese in Mozambique required Indian nationals to leave within three months of release from internment camps. 1963 President Kennedy visited West Berlin and declared 'Ich bin ein Berliner'. Born Philip Doddridge, English Nonconformist, 1702; William Thomson, Lord Kelvin, English physicist, 1824: Pearl S Buck, US novelist, 1892: Peter Lorre, US film actor, 1904: Laurie Lee, English poet and author, 1914: Claudio Abbado, Italian conductor, 1933. Died Francisco Pizarro, Spanish explorer who conquered Peru, assassinated, 1541: Richard Fanshawe, Eng- lish scholar and diplomat, 1666: Ralph Cudworth, English philosopher, 1688: Gilbert White, English clergyman and naturalist, 1793: Joseph- Michel Montgolfier, French balloonist, 1810: Ford Madox Ford, English novelist and poet, 1939. 27 June Feast day of St Cyril of Alexandria, St Zoilus, St Samson of Constantinople, St George Mtasmindeli, the Martyrs of Arras, St John of Chinon, and St Ladislas, King of Hungary. 1771 Russia completed its con- quest of the Crimea. 1795 A British force landed at Quiberon to aid the revolt in Brittany. 1795 French forces recaptured St Lucia. 1801 Cairo fell to English forces. 1932 A Constitution was proclaimed in Siam. 1940 The USSR invaded Romania on the refusal of King Carol to cede Bessarabia and Bukovina; Romania appealed for German aid in vain. 1941 Hungary dec- lared war on Russia. 1944 Allied forces took Cherbourg. 1950 US air, na- val and later ground forces supported South Korea against North Korea's invasion. Born Louis XII, king of France, 1462: Charles Stewart Parnell, Irish nationalist leader, 1846: John Monash, Australian civil engineer, 1865: Helen Keller, US author and teacher, 1880. Died Giorgio Vasari, Italian painter and art historian, 1571: Nathaniel Bailey, English lexi- cographer, 1742: Samuel Hood, British admiral, 1816: James Smithson, English scientist, 1829: Joseph Smith, founder of the Mormons, 1844: Malcolm Lowry, British novelist, 1957: Mohammed Reza Pahlavi, former Shah of Iran, 1980. 28 June Feast day of St Austell, Saints Potamiaena and Basilides, St Irenaeus, St Heimrad, St John Southworth, Saints Sergius and Germanus of Valaam, and St Paul, pope. 1519 Charles I of Spain, Sicily and Sardinia, was elected Holy Roman Emperor as Charles V. 1645 In the English Civil War, the Royalists lost Carlisle. 1895 Union of Nicaragua, Honduras and El Salvador (ended in 1898 by El Salvador's opposition). 1914 Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria and his wife were assassinated at Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian revolutionary. 1919 Britain and the US gu- aranteed France in event of an unprovoked German attack, which the US later refused to ratify. 1948 Yugoslavia was expelled from Cominform for hostility to the USSR. 1950 North Korean forces captured Seoul. 1956 Sydney Silverman's bill for abolition of death penalty passed the Com- mons; it was defeated in the Lords, 10 July. 1956 Labor riots at Poznan, Poland, were put down with heavy loss of life. Born Sigismund of Luxem- bourg, Holy Roman Emperor, 1368: Henry VIII, 1491: Jean-Jacques Rousse- au, French philosopher and writer, 1712: Etienne-Franзois, Duc de Choi- seul, French politician, 1719; Luigi Pirandello, Italian playwright, 1867: Harold Evans, British newspaper editor, 1929. Died Paul I, pope, 767: Jean de Rotrou, French playwright, 1650: James Madison, 4th presi- dent of the US, 1836: Robert Burke, Irish explorer of Australia, 1861: Alfred Noyes, English poet, 1958: Lord Raglan, British soldier, 1855: Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian throne, assassinated, 1914: Boris Christoff, Bulgarian operatic bass, 1993. 29 June Feast day of St Peter, St Paul, St Elwin, Saints Judith and Sa- lome, and St Cassius of Narni. 1613 The Globe Theatre was destroyed by fire. 1880 France annexed Tahiti. 1943 US forces landed in New Guinea. 1945 Czechoslovakia ceded Ruthenia to the USSR. 1949 The US completed its withdrawal of occupying forces from South Korea. 1949 British dock strike. 1949 The South African Citizenship Act suspended the automatic granting of citizenship to Commonwealth immigrants after five years, and imposed a ban on mixed marriages between Europeans and non-Europeans - the beginning of the Apartheid program. 1954 Following the meeting of President Eisenhower and Winston Churchill in Washington the Potomac Charter, or six-point declaration of western policy, was issued. 1965 US troops took offensive action for the first time against North Vietnamese forces. Born Peter Paul Rubens, English painter, 1577: Giacomo Leopardi, Italian poet, 1798: George Ellery Hale, US astronomer, 1868: Antoine de Saint-Exupйry, French author and aviator, 1900: Nelson Eddy, US singer and film actor, 1901: Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands, 1911. Died Margaret, Countess of Richmond (The Lady Margaret), 1509: Elizabeth Bar- rett Browning, English poet, 1861: T H Huxley, English biologist, 1895: Albert Sorel, French historian, 1906: Paul Klee, Swiss painter, 1940: Ignaz Jan Paderewski, Polish pianist, composer, and politician, 1941: Jayne Mansfield, US film actress, 1967. 30 June Feast day of St Theobald of Provins, the Martyrs of Rome, St Emma, St Bertrand of Le Mans, St Erentrude, and St Martial of Limoges. 1574 William of Orange persuaded the Estates of Holland to open the dy- kes to hinder the Spanish siege of Leyden. 1596 English expedition under Lord Howard of Effingham and the Earl of Essex sacked Cadiz, ravaged the Spanish coast, and captured much booty. Philip II was thus prevented from sending an Armada against England. 1782 Spain completed its conqu- est of Florida. 1797 The Nore mutiny was suppressed. 1846 The Mormons under Brigham Young left Nauvoo City on trail for the Great Salt Lake. 1934 A Nazi purge took place in Germany with summary executions of Kurt von Schleicher, Ernst Roehm and other party leaders for an alleged plot against Hitler. 1965 An India-Pakistan cease-fire was signed. Born Phi- lip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, 1396: Charles VIII, king of France, 1469: Paul Franзois Nicolas Barras, French politician, 1755: Georges Du- hamel, French novelist and poet, 1884: Stanley Spencer, English painter, 1891: Harold Laski, English politician, 1893. Died Montezuma II, Aztec ruler, assassinated, 1520: Johann Reuchlin, German humanist and Hebrew scholar, 1522: Willem Barents, Dutch explorer, 1597: William Oughtred, English mathematician, 1660: Nancy Mitford, English author, 1973: Lilli- an Hellman, US playwright, 1984. 1 July National Day of Canada. Feast day of St Gall of Clermont, Saints Aaron and Julius, St Eparchius or Cybard, St Oliver Plunket, St Carilep- hus or Calais, St Thierry or Theodoric of Mont d'Or, St Servanus or Serf, St Simeon Salus, and St Shenute. 1690 At the Battle of the Boyne, William III of England defeated the Jacobites under James II. 1751 The first volume of Diderot's Encyclopйdie was published in Paris. 1838 Charles Darwin presented a paper to the Linnaean Society in London, UK, on his theory of the evolution of species. 1863 The Battle of Gettys- burg, in the American Civil War, began. 1916 The first Battle of the Somme began; more than 21,000 men were killed on the battle's first day. 1937 The telephone emergency service, 999, became operational in Brita- in. 1940 Guernsey was occupied by German forces. 1990 A state treaty es- tablishing a unified economy and monetary system for East and West Ger- many went into effect. 1991 The Warsaw Pact, the last vestige of the Cold War-era Soviet bloc, was formally disbanded. Born George Sand, French novelist, 1804; Louis Blйriot, French aviator, 1872; Charles La- ughton, English film actor, 1899; Olivia de Havilland, US film actress, 1916; HRH the Princess of Wales, 1961; Carl Lewis, US athlete, 1961. Di- ed Charles Goodyear, US inventor, 1860; Allan Pinkerton, US founder of the Detective Agency, 1884; Harriet Beecher Stowe, US author, 1896; Erik Satie, French composer, 1925; Juan Perуn, Argentinian politician, 1974. 2 July Feast day of Saints Processus and Martinian, St Monegundis, and St Otto of Bamberg. 1644 Oliver Cromwell defeated Prince Rupert at the- Battle of Marston Moor, his first victory over the Royalists in the Eng- lish Civil War. 1865 At a revivalist meeting at Whitechapel, London, UK, William Booth formed the Salvation Army. 1900 The 2nd Olympic Games ope- ned in Paris. 1940 The Vichy Government was set up in France, headed by Henri Pйtain. 1956 Elvis Presley recorded 'Hound Dog' and 'Don't Be Cru- el' in New York. 1964 President Johnson signed the US Civil Rights Bill prohibiting racial discrimination. 1990 Over a thousand Muslim pilgrims were killed when a stampede occurred in a pedestrian tunnel leading to the holy city of Mecca. Born Thomas Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury, 1489; Christoph Gluзk, German composer, 1714; William Henry Bragg, Eng- lish physicist, 1862; Hermann Hesse, German poet and novelist, 1877; Er- nest Hemingway, 1899; David Owen, British politician, 1938; Kenneth Clarke, British politician, 1940. Died Nostradamus, French physician and astrologer, 1566; Jean Jacques Rousseau, French philosopher and writer, 1778; Amelia Earhart, US aviator, disappeared over the Pacific, 1937; Ernest Hemingway, US novelist, 1961; Betty Grable, US film actress, 1973; Vladimir Nabokov, Russian novelist, 1977. 3 July Feast day of St Thomas the Apostle, St Anatolius of Constanti- nople, Saints Irenaeus and Mustiola, St Leo II, pope, St Anatolius of Laodicea, St Rumold or Rombaut, St Bernardino Realino, and St Helidorus of Altino. 1608 French explorer Samuel Champlain founded Quйbec. 1863 The Union forces, under General Meade, defeated the Confederates at the Battle of Gettysburg. 1905 In Odessa, over 6,000 people were killed by Russian troops to restore order during a general strike. 1954 Nearly ni- ne years after the end of the World War II, food rationing in Britain finally ended. 1962 Following a referendum, France proclaimed Algeria independent. 1976 An Israeli commando force rescued 103 hostages from a hijacked aircraft, who were being held at Entebbe airport, Uganda. 1988 The USS Vincennes, patrolling the Gulf during the Iran-Iraq conflict, mistook an Iranian civil airliner for a bomber and shot it down, killing all 290 people on board. Born Robert Adam, Scottish architect and desig- ner, 1728; Leoљ Janбcek, Czech composer, 1854; Franz Kafka, Czech wri- ter, 1883; Ken Russell, British film director, 1927; Tom Stoppard, Bri- tish dramatist, 1937; Richard Hadlee, New Zealand cricketer, 1951. Died Marie de' Medici, Queen of France, 1642; Theodor Herzl, Austrian Zionist leader, 1904; Joel Chandler Harris, US author, 1908; Brian Jones, Eng- lish rock guitarist, 1961; Jim Morrison, US singer, 1971; Rudy Vallee, US singer, 1986; Joe De Rita, US comedian, 1993. 4 July Independence Day in the US. Feast day of The Martyrs of Dorches- ter, St Andrew of Crete, St Elizabeth of Portugal, St Ulric of Augsburg, St Bertha of Blangy, and St Odo of Canterbury. 1776 The American Decla- ration of Independence was adopted. 1829 Britain's first regular schedu- led bus service began running, between Marylebone Road and the Bank of England, in London. 1848 The Communist Manifesto was published by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. 1946 The Philippine Islands were given inde- pendence by the US. 1968 Alec Rose landed at Portsmouth in Lively Lady, having sailed single-handed around the world. 1991 Colombia's President Cesar Gaviria Trujillo lifted state of siege that had been in effect since 1984. Born Nathaniel Hawthorne, US author, 1804; Giuseppe Garibal- di, Italian soldier and patriot, 1807; Gertrude Lawrence, English act- ress, 1898; Louis Armstrong, US jazz trumpeter and singer, 1900; Neil Simon, US dramatist, 1927; Gina Lollobrigida, Italian film actress, 1927. Died Samuel Richardson, English novelist, 1761; Thomas Jefferson, 3rd US president, 1826; John Adams, 2nd US president, 1826; James Mon- roe, 5th US president, 1831; Marie Curie, Polish scientist, 1934; Suzan- ne Lenglen, French tennis player, 1939. 5 July National Day of Venezuela. Feast day of St Antony-Mary Zaccaria, and St Athanasius the Athonite. 1791 George Hammond was appointed the first British ambassador to the US. 1946 A swimsuit designed by Louis Reard, called 'bikini', was first modeled at a Paris fashion show. 1948 Britain's National Health Service came into operation. 1965 Maria Cal- las, at the age of 41, gave her last stage performance singing Tosca at Covent Garden, London, UK. 1967 Israel annexed Gaza. 1969 The Rolling Stones gave a free concert in Hyde Park two days after the death of gui- tarist Brian Jones; it was attended by 250,000 people. 1980 Bjorn Borg won the Wimbledon singles championship for a record fifth consecutive time. 1989 Convicted for his involvement in the Iran-Contra affair, US Army Colonel Oliver North was fined $150,000 and given a suspended sen- tence. Born Sarah Siddons, English actress, 1755; Cecil Rhodes, South African statesman, 1853; Dwight Davis, US statesman, 1879; Jean Cocteau, French poet, novelist, artist, and film director, 1889; Georges Pompi- dou, French statesman, 1911; Elizabeth Emanuel, English dress designer, 1953. Died Thomas Stamford Raffles, British colonial administrator, 1826; Austen Henry Layard, British archeologist, 1894; Georges Bernanos, French author, 1948; Thomas Joseph Mboya, Kenyan statesman, 1969; Walter Adolph Gropius, US architect, 1969; Georgette Heyer, English novelist, 1974. 6 July National Day of Malawi. Feast day of St Romulus of Fiesole, St Dominica, St Mary Goretti, St Goar, St Modwenna, St Godeleva, St Sexbur- ga, and St Sisoes. 1535 Sir Thomas More was beheaded on London's Tower Hill for treason. 1553 Mary I acceded to the throne, becoming the first queen to rule England in her own right. 1685 James II defeated the Duke of Monmouth, claimant to the throne, at the Battle of Sedgemoor, the last battle to be fought on English soil. 1892 Britain's first non-white MP was elected - Dadabhai Naoraji won the Central Finsbury seat. 1928 The first all-talking feature film, Lights of New York, was presented at the Strand Theater in New York City. 1964 Engaged couple Chrissie Evert and Jimmy Connors won the men's and women's singles at Wimbledon. 1965 The Beatles' film A Hard Day's Night was premiered in London, UK, with royal attendance. 1988 An explosion aboard the North Sea oil rig Piper Alpha resulted in the loss of 166 lives. Born Nicholas I, Tsar of Rus- sia, 1796; Bill Haley, US rock musician, 1925; Janet Leigh, US film act- ress, 1927; Dalai Lama, Tibetan spiritual leader, 1935; Vladimir Ashke- nazy, Russian pianist, 1937; Sylvester Stallone, US film actor, 1946. Died Guy de Maupassant, French writer, 1893; Kenneth Grahame, Scottish children's author, 1932; Aneurin Bevan, British statesman, 1960; William Faulkner, US novelist, 1962; Louis Armstrong, US jazz musician, 1971; Otto Klemperer, German conductor, 1973; John Bolton, English astronomer, 1993. 7 July Feast day of St Hedda of Winchester, Saints Ethelburga, Ercongo- ta and Sethrida, St Palladius, Saints Cyril and Methodius, St Pantaenus, and St Felix of Nantes. 1853 US naval officer Commodore Matthew Perry arrived in Japan, and persuaded her to open trade contacts with the West. 1927 Christopher Stone became the first 'disc jockey' on British radio when he presented his 'Record Round-up' from Savoy Hill. 1929 The Vatican City State, with the pope as its sovereign, came into being through the Lateran Treaty. 1982 Queen Elizabeth II was woken by a strange man sitting on her bed in Buckingham Palace; the presence of the intruder, who merely asked her for a cigarette, raised concerns about Palace security. 1985 The unseeded 17-year-old Boris Becker became the youngest ever men's singles champion at Wimbledon. 1990 Martina Navrati- lova won a record ninth Wimbledon singles title. Born Marc Chagall, Rus- sian painter and designer, 1887; George Cukor, US film director, 1899; Vittorio de Sica, Italian film director, 1901; Pierre Cardin, French fashion designer, 1922; Ringo Starr, English drummer, 1940; Tony Jack- lin, English golfer, 1944. Died King Edward I, 1307; Giacomo da Vignola, Italian architect, 1573; R B Sheridan, English dramatist, 1816; Georg Ohm, German physicist, 1854; Arthur Conan Doyle, British author, 1930; Flora Robson, British actress, 1984. 8 July Feast day of St Adrian III, pope, St Raymund of Toulouse, Saints Aquila and Prisca or Priscilla, St Kilian and his Companions, St Sunniva and her Companions, St Withburga, St Grimbald, and St Procopius of Cae- sarea. 1497 Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama left Lisbon for a voyage on which he discovered the Cape route to India. 1709 Charles XII of Swe- den was defeated by Peter the Great's army at the Battle of Poltava, crushing Sweden's territorial ambitions. 1884 The National Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC) was founded in London, UK. 1907 Ziegfeld's Follies opened for the first time, on Broadway. 1943 Je- an Moulin, the French Resistance leader known as 'Max', was executed by the Gestapo. 1948 General Mc Arthur was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the UN forces in Korea. 1978 Reinhold Messner and Peter Habeler became the first to climb Everest entirely without oxygen. 1991 Iraq admitted to the UN that it had been conducting clandestine programs to produce enriched uranium, a key element in nuclear weapons. Born Jean de la Fon- taine, French writer, 1621; Joseph Chamberlain, British statesman, 1836; John D Rockefeller, US millionaire, 1839; Arthur Evans, English archeo- logist, 1851; Percy Grainger, Australian composer, 1882; Billy Eckstine, US singer, 1915. Died Percy Bysshe Shelley, English poet, 1822; Anthony Hope, British novelist, 1933; Henry Havelock Ellis, English physician and author, 1939; Vivien Leigh, English film actress, 1967; Michael Wil- ding, English film actor, 1979; Judith Chrisholm, British aviator, 1988; Fred Weick, US aeronautical engineer, 1993. 9 July National Day of Argentina. Feast day of St Veronica de Julianis, St Nicholas Pieck and his Companions, St Everild, and the Martyrs of Gorcum. 1810 Napoleon annexed Holland, making his brother, Louis, its king. 1816 Argentina declared independence from Spain at the Congress of Tucuman. 1877 The first Wimbledon Lawn Tennis championship was held at its original site at Worple Road. 1922 Johnny Weissmuller, aged 18, swam the 100m in under a minute (58.6 sec). 1938 In anticipation of World War II, 35 million gas masks were issued to Britain's civilian population. 1979 In Nicaragua, General Somoza was overthrown by the Sandinista re- bels. 1984 Lightning struck York Minster Cathedral and set the roof on fire, destroying the south transept. 1991 The International Olympic Com- mittee lifted a 21-year-old boycott on South Africa. Born Elias Howe, US inventor, 1819; Bruce Bairnsfather, British cartoonist, 1888; Barbara Cartland, English novelist, 1901; Edward Heath, British politician, 1916; Michael Williams, British actor, 1935; David Hockney, English pa- inter, 1937. Died Jan van Eyck, Flemish painter, 1440; Edmund Burke, British statesman, 1797; Zachary Taylor, 12th US president, 1850; King Camp Gilette, US safety-razor inventor, 1932; Randall Thompson, US com- poser, 1984. 10 July Feast day of St Felicity, The Seven Brothers, St Amelberga, and Saints Rufina and Secunda. 1460 In the Wars of the Roses, the Yorkists defeated the Lancastrians and captured Henry VI at the Battle of Nort- hampton. 1553 Following the death of Edward VI, Lady Jane Grey was proc- laimed Queen of England. 1900 The Paris underground railroad, the Metro, was opened. 1958 Britain's first parking meters were installed, in May- fair, London. 1962 The US communications satellite Telstar was launched, bringing Europe the first live television from the US. 1976 Seveso, in northern Italy, was covered by a cloud of toxic weedkiller leaked from a chemicals factory; crops and 40,000 animals died. 1985 The Greenpeace campaign ship Rainbow Warrior sank in Auckland, New Zealand, after two explosions tore its hull. Born John Calvin, French religious reformer, 1509; Camille Pissarro, French painter, 1830; Marcel Proust, French aut- hor, 1871; Carl Orff, German composer, 1895; Arthur Ashe, US tennis pla- yer, 1943; Arlo Guthrie, US singer, 1947. Died Hadrian, Roman emperor, 138; El Cid, Spanish hero, 1099; Louis Jacques Mandй Daguerre, French photographic pioneer, 1851; Karl Richard Lepsius, German Egyptologist, 1884; Jelly Roll Morton, US ragtime pianist and composer, 1941; Giorgio de Chirico, Italian painter, 1978; Masuji Ibuse, Japanese writer, 1993. 11 July National Day of Mongolia. Feast day of St Benedict, St John of Bergamo, St Drostan, St Olga, and St Hidulf. 1708 The Duke of Marlboro- ugh's forces defeated the French at the Battle of Oudenarde, in the War of the Spanish Succession. 1776 Captain Cook sailed from Plymouth in the Resolution, accompanied by the Discovery, on his last expedition. 1848 London's Waterloo Station was officially opened. 1950 In Britain Andy Pandy, the BBC's popular children's television program, was first trans- mitted. 1975 Excavations at the tomb of Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi, near the ancient Chinese capital of Xi'an, uncovered an army of 8,000 li- fe-size terracotta warriors dating to about 206 BC 1977 In Britain, Gay News was fined Ј1,000 for publishing a poem which portrayed Jesus as ho- mosexual. 1979 America's Skylab I returned to earth after 34,981 orbits and six years in space. Born Robert the Bruce, King of Scotland, 1274; Frederick I, King of Prussia, 1657; John Quincy Adams, 6th US president, 1767; Yul Brynner, US film actor, 1915; Peter de Savary, British entrep- reneur and yachtsman, 1944; Leon Spinks, US boxer, 1953. Died Alfred Dreyfus, French soldier, 1935; George Gershwin, US composer, 1937; Art- hur John Evans, English archeologist, 1941; Paul Nash, English painter, 1946; Buddy DeSylva, US lyricist and film director, 1950; Laurence Oli- vier, English actor and director, 1989. 12 July Orangeman's Day in Northern Ireland. Feast day of St John the Iberian, St Jason, Saints Hermagoras and Fortunatus, St John Gualbert, St John Jones, St Veronica, and St Felix. 1543 Henry VIII married Cathe- rine Parr, his sixth and last wife, at Hampton Court Palace. 1794 Bri- tish admiral Horatio Nelson lost his right eye at the siege of Calvi, in Corsica. 1878 Cyprus was ceded to British administration by Turkey. 1920 US President Wilson opened the Panama Canal. 1930 Australian batsman Don Bradman scored a record 334 runs - of which a record 309 were scored in one day - against England at Leeds. 1970 Thor Heyerdahl and his crew crossed the Atlantic in 57 days, in a papyrus boat. 1991 Hitoshi Igaras- hi, the Japanese translator of Salman Rushdie's Satanic Verses, was fo- und stabbed to death in Tokyo. Born Gaius Julius Caesar, Roman emperor, 100 BC; Henry Thoreau, US author, 1817; George Eastman, US photographic pioneer, 1854; Amadeo Modigliani, Italian painter and sculptor, 1884; Bill Cosby, US comedian and actor, 1937; Jennifer Saunders, English co- medienne and actress, 1958. Died Desiderius Erasmus, Dutch scholar, 1536; Titus Oates, British conspirator, 1705; Charles Stewart Rolls, British engineer and aviator, 1910; Mazo de la Roche, Canadian novelist, 1961; Kenneth More, British actor, 1982. 13 July Feast day of Saints Bridget and Maura, St Henry the Emperor, St Silas or Silvanus, St Francis Solano, and St Eugenius of Carthage. 1793 Jean Paul Marat, French revolutionary leader, was stabbed to death in his bath by Charlotte Corday. 1837 Queen Victoria became the first sove- reign to move into Buckingham Palace. 1871 The first cat show was held, organized by Harrison Weir, at Crystal Palace, London, UK. 1878 The Tre- aty of Berlin was signed, granting Bosnia-Herzegovina to Austria-Hunga- ry, and gaining the independence of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro from Turkey. 1930 The World Football Cup was first held in Uruguay; the hosts beat the 13 other competing countries. 1985 Two simultaneous 'Live Aid' concerts, one in London and one in Philadelphia, raised over Ј50 million for famine victims in Africa. Born John Dee, English alchemist, astrolo- ger, and mathematician, 1527; George Gilbert Scott, English architect, 1811; Sidney Webb, English social reformer, 1859; David Storey, English novelist and dramatist, 1933; Harrison Ford, US film actor, 1942. Died Richard Cromwell, Lord Protector of England, 1712; James Bradley, Eng- lish astronomer, 1762; Jean Paul Marat, French revolutionary leader, 1793; John Charles Frйmont, US explorer, 1890; Arnold Schoenberg, Aust- rian composer, 1951; Seretse Khama, Botswanan politician, 1980. 14 July National Day of France (Bastille Day), and of Iraq. Feast day of St Marcellinus or Marchelm, St Camillus de Lellis, St Ulric of Zell, and St Deusdedit of Canterbury. 1789 The Bastille was stormed by the ci- tizens of Paris and razed to the ground as the French Revolution began. 1823 During a visit to Britain, King Kamehameha II of Hawaii and his qu- een died of measles. 1867 Alfred Nobel demonstrated dynamite for the first time at a quarry in Redhill, Surrey, UK. 1958 In a military coup led by General Kassem, King Faisal of Iraq was assassinated and a repub- lic proclaimed. 1959 The USS Long Beach, the first nuclear warship, was launched. 1967 Abortion was legalized in Britain. 1972 Gary Glitter and the Glittermen (later called the Glitter Band) gave their first concert in Wiltshire, UK. 1989 Over 300,000 Siberian coalminers went on strike, demanding better pay and conditions. Born Emmeline Pankhurst, English suffragist, 1858; Isaac Bashevis Singer, Polish author, 1904; Woody Guthrie, US folk singer, 1912; Gerald Ford, 38th US president, 1913; Ingmar Bergman, Swedish film director, 1918; Bruce Oldfield, British fashion designer, 1950. Died Alfred Krupp, German industrialist, 1887; Paul Kruger, Boer leader, 1904; William Henry Perkin, English chemist and inventor of aniline dyes, 1907; Grock, Swiss clown, 1959; Adlai Ste- venson, US statesman, 1965. 15 July Feast day of St Swithin, St Athanasius of Naples, St Bonaventu- re, St Donald, St Edith of Polesworth, St Barhadbesaba, St David of Munktorp, St Vladimir of Kiev, and St Pompilio Pirrotti. 1099 Jerusalem was captured by the Crusaders with troops led by Godfrey and Robert of Flanders and Tancred of Normandy. 1795 The Marseillaise, written by Rou- get de Lisle in 1792, was officially adopted as the French national ant- hem. 1857 During the Indian Mutiny, the second Massacre of Cawnpore (now Kanpur) took place, in which 197 English women and children were killed. 1869 Margarine was patented by Hippolyte Mege Mouries in Paris. 1948 Al- coholics Anonymous, in existence in the US since 1935, was founded in London, UK. 1965 US Mariner transmitted the first close-up pictures of Mars. 1990 In an ongoing campaign of violence, separatist Tamil Tigers massacred 168 Muslims in Colombo, the Sri Lankan capital. Born Inigo Jo- nes, English architect, 1573; Rembrandt, Dutch painter, 1606; Hammond Innes, English novelist, 1913; Iris Murdoch, Irish novelist, 1919; Juli- an Bream, English guitarist, 1933; Harrison Birtwistle, English compo- ser, 1934; Linda Ronstadt, US singer, 1946. Died General Tom Thumb, cir- cus dwarf, 1883; Anton Chekhov, Russian dramatist and author, 1904; Hugo von Hofmannsthal, Austrian dramatist and poet, 1929; John Pershing, US soldier, 1948; Paul William Gallico, US writer, 1976; Margaret Mary Lockwood, English film actress, 1990. 16 July Feast day of St Mary Magdalen Postel, St Fulrad, St Athenoge- nes, St Helier, St Eustathius of Antioch, and St Reineldis. 622 Traditi- onally, the beginning of the Islamic Era, when Mohammed began his flight (the Hejira) from Mecca to Medina. 1661 Europe's first banknotes were issued, by the Bank of Stockholm. 1782 Mozart's opera Die Entfьhhrung aus dem Serail was first performed, in Vienna. 1918 The last tsar of Russia, Nicholas II, along with his entire family, family doctor, ser- vants, and even the pet dog, was murdered by Bolsheviks at Ekaterinburg. 1945 The first atomic bomb developed by Robert Oppenheimer and his team at Los Alamos was exploded in New Mexico. 1965 The Mont Blanc road tun- nel, linking France with Italy, was opened. 1990 An earthquake struck the main Philippine island of Luzon, killing over 1,500 people. Born Andrea del Sarto, Italian painter, 1486; Joshua Reynolds, English pain- ter, 1723; Roald Amundsen, Norwegian polar explorer, 1872; Barbara Stan- wyck, US film actress, 1907; Ginger Rogers, US film actress and dancer, 1911; Margaret Court, Australian tennis player, 1942. Died Pope Innocent III, 1216; Anne of Cleves, 4th wife of Henry VIII, 1557; Josiah Spode, English potter, 1827; Hilaire Belloc, British author, 1953; John Phil- lips Marquand, US writer, 1960; Herbert von Karajan, Austrian conductor, 1989. 17 July Feast day of The Seven Apostles of Bulgaria, St Clement of Okh- rida and his Companions, St Leo IV, pope, St Ennodius, St Kenelm, St Speratus and his Companions, St Marcellina, and St Nerses Lampronazi. 1453 With the defeat of the English at the Battle of Castillon, the Hundred Years' War between France and England came to an end. 1841 The first issue of the humorous magazine Punch was published in London, UK. 1917 The British royal family changed their name from 'House of Saxe-Co- burg-Gotha' to 'House of Windsor'. 1945 The Potsdam Conference of Allied leaders Truman, Stalin, and Churchill (later replaced by Attlee) began. 1975 The US Apollo spacecraft and the Russian Soyuz craft successfully docked while in orbit. 1981 The Humber Estuary Bridge, the world's lon- gest single-span structure, was officially opened by the Queen. 1990 Iraqi President Saddam Hussein threatened to use force against Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates, to stop them driving oil prices down by overproduction. Born Maxim Litvinov, Soviet leader, 1876; Erle Stanley Gardner, US novelist, 1889; James Cagney, US film actor, 1899; Phyllis Diller, US comedienne, 1917; Donald Sutherland, Canadian film actor, 1935; Wayne Sleep, British dancer and choreographer, 1948. Died Adam Smith, Scottish economist, 1790; Charlotte Corday, murderess of Marat, executed, 1793; James McNeill Whistler, US painter, 1903; Dragolub Mi- hajlovic, Serbian nationalist, executed, 1946; Billy Holiday, US jazz singer, 1959. 18 July National Day of Spain. Feast day of St Bruno of Segni, St Pam- bo, St Arnoul or Arnulf of Metz, and St Frederick of Utrecht. 64 The great fire began in Rome and lasted for nine days. 1870 The Vatican Co- uncil proclaimed the Dogma of Papal Infallibility in matters of faith and morals. 1923 Under the Matrimonial Causes Bill, British women were given equal divorce rights with men. 1925 Mein Kampf, Hitler's political testament, was published. 1936 The Spanish Civil War began with an army revolt led by Francisco Franco against the Republican government. 1955 Disneyland, the 160-acre amusement park, opened near Anaheim, Califor- nia. 1959 Fidel Castro ousted President Urrutia and assumed the presi- dency of Cuba. 1984 In San Ysidro, California, a security guard walked into a McDonalds and began shooting randomly, killing 20 people and wo- unding 16. Born Gilbert White, English naturalist, 1720; W M Thackeray, English novelist and poet, 1811; Nelson Mandela, South African politici- an, 1918; John Glenn, US astronaut and politician, 1921; Richard Bran- son, British entrepreneur, 1950; Nick Faldo, English golfer, 1957. Died Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, Italian painter, 1610; Antoine Watte- au, French painter, 1721; Peter III, Tsar of Russia, murdered, 1762; Ja- ne Austen, English novelist, 1817; Thomas Cook, British pioneer travel agent, 1892; Jack Hawkins, British film actor, 1973; Jean Negulesco, Ro- manian-born US film director, 1993. 19 July Feast day of Saints Justa and Rufina, St Ambrose Autpert, St Macrina the Younger, St Arsenius the Great, St James of Nisibia, St Sym- machus, pope, and St John Plesington. 1545 The Mary Rose, the pride of Henry VIII's battle fleet, keeled over and sank in the Solent with the loss of 700 lives. (The ship was raised 11 Oct 1982 to be taken to Port- smouth Dockyard.) 1837 Brunel's 70 m/236 ft steamship, the Great Wes- tern, was launched at Bristol. 1848 At a convention in Seneca Falls, New York, female rights campaigner Amelia Bloomer introduced 'bloomers' to the world. 1903 The first Tour de France cycle race was won by Maurice Garin. 1949 Laos gained independence. 1982 Tom Watson became the fifth man to win both the US and British Open Golf Tournaments in the same year. 1991 A major political scandal erupted in South Africa after the government admitted that it had made secret payments to the Zulu-based Inkatha Freedom Party. Born Samuel Colt, US inventor, 1814; Edgar Degas, French painter, 1834; Lizzie Borden, alleged US axe murderess, 1860; Charles Horace Mayo, US physician, 1865; A J Cronin, Scottish novelist, 1896; Ilie Nastase, Romanian tennis player, 1946. Died Petrarch, Italian poet, 1374; Matthew Flinders, English navigator and explorer of Austra- lia, 1814; Tom Hayward, English cricketer, 1939; Syngman Rhee, Korean politician, 1965; Clarence White, US pop guitarist, 1973; Szymon Gold- berg, Polish-born violinist and conductor, 1993. 20 July National Day of Colombia. Feast day of St Margaret of Antioch, St Elias of Jerusalem, St Ansegisus, St Aurelius of Carthage, St Flavian of Antioch, St Wulmar, St Gregory Lopez, St Wilgefortis or Liberata, and St Joseph Barsabas the Just. 1837 London's first railroad station, Eus- ton, was opened. 1845 Charles Sturt became the first European to enter Simpson's Desert in central Australia. 1885 Professional football was legalized in Britain. 1940 In the US, Billboard published the first singles-record charts. 1944 German staff officer Colonel von Stauffen- burg attempted to assassinate Hitler, in Rastenburg, Germany. 1968 Du- ring a BBC radio interview, actress Jane Asher announced that her enga- gement to Beatle Paul McCartney was off; he was not the first to find out. 1975 After an 11-month journey, the US uncrewed Viking 1 made a soft landing on Mars. Born Petrarch, Italian poet, 1304; Alberto San- tos-Dumont, Brazilian aviator, 1873; John Reith, Scottish engineer and first director general of the BBC, 1889; Edmund Hillary, New Zealand mo- untaineer, 1919; Jacques Delors, French politician, 1925; Diana Rigg, English actress, 1938. Died Pope Leo XIII, 1903; Andrew Lang, Scottish historian and folklore scholar, 1912; Guglielmo Marconi, Italian inven- tor, 1937; Ian Macleod, British statesman, 1970; Bruce Lee, US 'Chinese Western' actor, 1973; Harry Worth, English comedian, 1989. 21 July National day of Belgium. Feast day of St Laurence of Brindisi, St Victor of Marseilles, St Arbogastes, and St Praxedes. 1798 The Battle of the Pyramids took place, in which Napoleon, soon after his invasion of Egypt, defeated an army of some 60,000 Mamelukes. 1861 The Confedera- tes defeated the Union troops in the first Battle of Bull Run, in the American Civil War. 1897 London's Tate Gallery, built on the site of the Millbank Prison, was opened. 1944 Guam, in the western Pacific, which had been under Japanese occupation since Dec 1941, was retaken by US Ma- rines. 1960 Sirimavo Bandaranaika replaced her murdered husband as prime minister of Sri Lanka, becoming the first woman to hold this office. 1969 The lunar module Apollo 11 landed on the Moon, and US astronauts Armstrong and Aldrin took their first exploratory walk. 1990 More than 150,000 people attended 'The Wall', a large-scale concert staged by rock performers in East Berlin to celebrate the dismantling of the Berlin Wall. Born Paul Julius von Reuter, German news agency founder, 1816; Er- nest Hemingway, US novelist, 1899; Kay Starr, US singer, 1922; Norman Jewison, Canadian film director, 1926; Jonathan Miller, English TV, film and theater director, 1934; Cat Stevens, English rock singer and song- writer, 1948. Died Robert Burns, Scottish poet, 1796; Ellen Tracy, Eng- lish actress, 1928; George Macaulay Trevelyan, British historian, 1962; Albert Luthuli, South African politician, 1967; Basil Rathbone, English actor, 1967 James F Fixx, US jogging guru, while running in Vermont, 1984. 22 July National Day of Poland. Feast day of St Mary Magdalen, St Jo- seph of Palestine, St Philip Evans, St Vandrille or Wandregesilus, and St John Lloyd. 1812 The Duke of Wellington defeated the French in the Battle of Salamanca, in Spain. 1933 Wiley Post completed the first aro- und the world solo airplane flight - the journey took 7 days, 18 hrs and 49.5 min. 1934 US bank robber and 'public enemy no 1', John Dillinger, was gunned down by an FBI squad in Chicago. 1946 Bread rationing started in Britain. 1976 The musical show A Chorus Line was staged in London, UK, for the first time. 1991 Prime Minister John Major unveiled the go- vernment's 'Citizen's Charter' aimed at improving public services. Born Philip I, King of Spain, 1478; Gregor Mendel, Austrian monk and bota- nist, 1822; Selman Abraham Waksman, US biochemist, 1888; Alexander Cal- der, US sculptor, 1898; Bryan Forbes, British author, director and pro- ducer, 1926; Terence Stamp, British actor, 1938. Died Marie Franзois Xa- vier Bichat, French anatomist, 1802; Florenz Ziegfeld, US theatrical producer, 1932; Mackenzie King, Canadian statesman, 1950; Carl Sandburg, US poet, 1967; Mortimer Wheeler, British archeologist, 1976. 23 July National Day of Ethiopia and of The United Arab Republic. Feast day of St Anne or Susanna, St John Cassian, St Romula and her Compani- ons, St Apollinaris of Ravenna, The Three Wise Men, St Bridget of Swe- den, and St Liborius. 1745 Charles Stuart, the Young Pretender, landed in the Hebrides. 1864 Dr Livingstone returned to England. 1940 The Local Defence Volunteers were renamed the Home Guard by Winston Churchill. 1952 King Farouk of Egypt was deposed by General Neguib. 1967 In the he- at of the mountain stage of the Tour de France, British cyclist Tony Simpson, 29, collapsed and died. 1986 Prince Andrew married Lady Sarah Ferguson in Westminster Abbey, and was created Duke of York. Born Arthur Whitten Brown, British aviator, 1886; Raymond Chandler, US novelist, 1888; Haile Selassie, Ethiopian emperor, 1892; Michael Wilding, English actor, 1912; Richard Rogers, English architect, 1933; Graham Gooch, Eng- lish cricketer, 1953. Died Domenico Scarlatti, Italian composer, 1757; Isaac Singer, US inventor, 1875; Ulysses Grant, general and 18th US pre- sident, 1885; D W Griffith, US film director, 1948; Eddie Rickenbacker, US World War I fighter pilot, 1973; Jahangir, Pakistani cricketer, 1988; Raul Gardini, Italian businessman, 1993. 24 July Feast day of St Christina the Astonishing, St Boris or Romanus, St Declan, St Christina of Bolsena, St Lewinna, and St Gleb or David. 1534 Jacques Cartier landed at Gaspй in Canada and claimed the territory for France. 1704 Admiral Sir George Rooke captured Gibraltar from the Spaniards. 1824 The result of the world's first public opinion poll, on voters intentions in the 1824 US Presidential election, was published in the Harrisburg Pennsylvanian. 1851 The window tax in Britain was abolis- hed. 1925 A six-year-old girl became the first patient to be successful- ly treated with insulin, at Guy's Hospital, London, UK. 1990 A Catholic nun and three policemen were killed by an IRA landmine hidden at the si- de of a road in County Armagh. Born Simуn Bolнvar, South American libe- rator, 1783; Alexandre Dumas Pйre, French author, 1802; Frank Wedekind, German dramatist, 1864; Amelia Earhart, US aviator, 1898; Peter Yates, British film director, 1919; Lynda Carter, US actress and singer, 1951. Died Martin van Buren, 8th US president, 1862; Matthew Webb, English swimmer, 1883; Sacha Guitry, French actor and dramatist, 1957; Constance Bennett, US film actress, 1965; James Chadwick, English physicist, 1974; Peter Sellers, English actor, 1980. 25 July Feast day of St Christopher, Saints Thea, Valentina and Paul, St James the Greater, and St Magnericus. 1139 Alfonso I of Portugal de- feated the Moors at Ourique. 1581 A confederation of the northern pro- vinces of the Netherlands proclaimed their independence from Spain. 1909 French aviator Louis Blйriot made the first Channel crossing in an airp- lane, which he had designed. 1917 Magarethe Zelle, the Dutch spy known as Mata Hari, was sentenced to death. 1943 Benito Mussolini was forced to resign as Dictator of Italy, bringing an end to the Fascist regime. 1948 Bread rationing in Britain ended. 1952 The European Coal and Steel Community, established by the treaty of Paris 1951, was ratified. 1978 The first test-tube baby in Britain was born - Louise Joy Brown, at Old- ham General Hospital, Lancashire. Born Arthur James Balfour, British statesman, 1848; Walter Brennan, US film actor, 1894; Johnny 'Rabbit' Hodges, US jazz saxophonist, 1907; Annie Ross, British singer, 1930; Co- lin Renfrew, British archeologist, 1937; Steve Goodman, US songwriter, 1948. Died Flavius Valerius Constantinus, Roman emperor, 306; Samuel Ta- ylor Coleridge, English poet, 1834; Charles Macintosh, Scottish chemist and inventor, 1843; Henry Mayhew, British social investigator and foun- der of Punch, 1887; Engelbert Dolfuss, Austrian statesman, 1934. 26 July National Day of Liberia. Feast day of St Anne, St Simeon the Armenian, St Joachim, and St Bartholomea Capitanio. 1745 The first re- corded women's cricket match was played near Guildford, Surrey, UK, bet- ween teams from Hambledon and Bramley. 1847 Liberia became the first Af- rican colony to secure independence. 1908 The US Federal Bureau of In- vestigation, concerned in particular with internal security, was foun- ded. 1945 The Labour Party won a landslide victory in Britain's General Election. 1956 President Nasser of Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal which led to confrontation with Britain, France, and Israel. 1958 Debu- tantes were presented at the British Royal Court for the last time. 1987 Cyclist Steve Roche became the first Irishman, and only the second non-continental European, to win the Tour de France. Born George Bernard Shaw, Irish dramatist, 1856; Carl Jung, Swiss psychologist, 1875; Aldous Huxley, English novelist, 1894; Stanley Kubrick, US film director, 1928; Mick Jagger, British rock singer, 1943; Vitas Gerulaitis, US tennis pla- yer, 1954. Died Samuel Houston, US general and president of the Republic of Texas, 1863; George Borrow, English writer, 1881; Eva Perуn, Argenti- nian populist leader, 1952; Charles Clore, English financier, 1979; Ave- rell Harriman, US statesman and diplomat, 1986. 27 July Feast day of The Seven Sleepers of Ephesus, St Theobald of Mar- ly, The Martyrs of Salsette, Saints Aurelia, Natalia and their Compani- ons, and St Pantaleon. 1694 The Bank of England was founded by act of Parliament. 1866 The Great Eastern arrived at Heart's Content in Newfo- undland, having successfully laid the transatlantic telegraph cable. 1942 The Battle of El Alamein ended after 17 days, with the British ha- ving prevented the German and Italian advance into Egypt. 1953 The Kore- an armistice was signed at Panmujom, ending three years of war. 1985 Ugandan President Milton Obote was overthrown for a second time, this time by a coup led by Brigadier Tito Okello. 1988 British pole-vault re- cord holder Jeff Gutteridge was banned for life by the British Amateur Athletic Board for taking steroids. Born Alexandre Dumas fils, French dramatist, 1824; Hilaire Belloc, English poet and author, 1870; Anton Dolin, British dancer and choreographer, 1904; Bobbie Gentry, US singer, 1942; Alan Border, Australian cricketer, 1955; Christopher Dean, British ice skater, 1958. Died John Dalton, English physicist and chemist, 1844; William Matthew Flinders Petrie, English Egyptologist, 1942; Gertude Stein, US novelist and poet, 1946; Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Shah of Iran, 1980; James Mason, English actor, 1984; Osbert Lancaster, British writer and artist, 1986. 28 July National Day of Peru. Feast day of Saints Nazarius and Celsus, St Botvid, and St Samson of Dol. 1786 The first potato arrived in Brita- in, brought from Colombia by Sir Thomas Harriot. 1794 Maximilien Robes- pierre and 19 other French Revolutionaries went to the guillotine. 1821 San Martin and his forces liberated Peru and proclaimed its independence from Spain. 1858 Fingerprints were first used as a means of identifica- tion by William Herschel, who later established a fingerprint register. 1868 The 14th Amendment to the US Constitution, dealing with citizens' rights of all races, was ratified. 1914 Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, beginning World War I. 1976 The Tian Shan area of China was struck by an earthquake which caused over 800,000 deaths. Born Gerard Manley Hopkins, English poet, 1844; Beatrix Potter, English author and illustrator, 1866; Marcel Duchamp, French painter, 1887; Rudy Vallee, US singer, 1901; Garfield Sobers, West Indian cricketer, 1936; Riccardo Mu- ti, Italian conductor 1941. Died Thomas Cromwell, Chancellor to King Henry VIII, executed, 1540; Cyrano de Bergerac, French poet and soldier, 1655; Antonio Vivaldi, Italian composer, 1741; Johann Sebastian Bach, German composer, 1750; Nathan Mayer Rothschild, British banker, 1836; Otto Hahn, German nuclear physicist, 1944. 29 July Feast day of St Martha, Saints Beatrice and Simplicius, Saints Faustinus and Beatrice, St Felix, antipope, St William of Saint-Brieuc, St Lupus of Troyes, and St Olav, King of Norway. 1588 The Spanish Armada was defeated by the English fleet under Howard and Drake, off Plymouth. 1900 King Umberto I of Italy was assassinated by an anarchist and succe- eded by Victor Emmanuel. 1948 The 14th Olympic Games opened in London, UK - the first in 12 years, due to World War II. 1949 The first regular televized weather forecast was broadcast by the BBC. 1968 Pope Paul VI reaffirmed the Church's traditional teaching on (and condemnation of) birth control. 1981 The Prince of Wales married Lady Diana Spencer at London's St Paul's Cathedral; the televized ceremony was watched by over 700 million viewers around the world. Born Alexis de Tocqueville, French historian and politician 1805; Booth Tarkington, US author, 1869; Benito Mussolini, Italian leader, 1883; Sigmund Romberg, US composer, 1887; Dag Hammarskjцld, Swedish UN secretary-general, 1905; Mikis Theodorakis, Greek composer, 1925. Died Robert Schumann, German composer, 1833; Vin- cent van Gogh, Dutch painter, 1890; John Barbirolli, English conductor, 1970; Raymond Massey, Canadian actor, 1983; David Niven, British film actor, 1983; Luis Buсuel, Spanish film director, 1983. 30 July Feast day of St Julitta of Caesarea, St Tatwin, Archbishop of Canterbury, Saints Abdon and Sennen, and St Peter Chrysologus. 1793 To- ronto (known as York until 1834) was founded by General John Simcoe. 1935 'Penguin' paperback books, founded by Allen Lane, went on sale in Britain. 1948 The world's first radar station was opened, to assist shipping at the port of Liverpool. 1963 Kim Philby, British intelligence officer from 1940 and Soviet agent from 1933, fled to the USSR. 1966 England won the Football World Cup in London, beating West Germany 4-2. 1990 Ian Gow, Conservative MP for Eastbourne, a close friend and perso- nal adviser to Prime Minister Thatcher, was killed by a automobile bomb at his home. Born Giorgio Vasari, Italian painter, architect, and wri- ter, 1511; Emily Brontл, English novelist, 1818; Henry Ford, US automo- bile manufacturer, 1863; Henry Moore, English sculptor, 1898; Daley Thompson, British athlete, 1958; Kate Bush, English singer, 1958. Died William Penn, English Quaker leader, 1718; Thomas Grey, English poet, 1771; Denis Diderot, French encyclopedist, 1784; Otto von Bismarck, Ger- man politician, 1898; Lynn Fontanne, US actress, 1983; Howard Dietz, US lyricist, 1983. 31 July Feast day of St Ignatius of Loyola, St Justin de Jacobis, St Neot, and St Helen of Skцvde. 1498 Columbus arrrived at Trinidad on his third voyage. 1919 The Weimar Republic was established in post-war Ger- many. 1910 Dr Crippen was arrested aboard the SS Montrose as it was doc- king at Quebec; charged with the murder of his wife, he was the first criminal to be caught by the use of radio. 1954 Mount Godwin-Austin (K2) in the Himalayas was first climbed by an Italian expedition, led by Ar- dito Desio. 1965 Cigarette advertising on British television was banned. 1971 US astronauts David Scott and James Irwin entered their Lunar Ro- ving Vehicle and went for a ride on the moon. 1991 At a superpower sum- mit in Moscow, Presidents Bush and Gorbachev signed the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START), and announced that they would be co-sponsoring a Middle East peace conference. Born John Ericsson, US naval engineer, 1803; Milton Friedman, US economist, 1912; Peter Nichols, English drama- tist, 1927; Lynne Reid Banks, English author, 1929; Geraldine Chaplin, US film actress, 1944; Evonne Cawley, Australian tennis player, 1951. Died Ignatius of Loyola, Spanish founder of the Jesuits, 1556; Andrew Jackson, 17th US president, 1875; Franz Liszt, Hungarian composer, 1886; Hedley Verity, English cricketer, 1943; Jim Reeves, US country singer, 1964; Leonard Cheshire, British pilot and philanthropist, 1992; King Ba- udouin I of the Belgians, 1993. 1 August National Day of Switzerland. Feast day of Saints Pistis, El- pis, and Agape (Faith, Hope, and Charity), St Peter Julian Eymard, St Ethelwold of Winchester, St Almedha or Aled, St Alphonse Liguori, and The Holy Macabees. 1498 Christopher Columbus reached the American main- land, and named it Santa Isla, believing it to be an island. 1714 George Louis, Elector of Hanover, was proclaimed King George I of Great Brita- in. 1774 English chemist Joseph Priestley identified oxygen, which he called 'a new species of air'. 1778 The first savings bank was opened, in Hamburg, Germany. 1793 The kilogram was introduced in France as the first metric weight. 1798 The English under Nelson destroyed the French fleet at the Battle of the Nile, in Aboukir Bay. 1834 Slavery was abo- lished throughout the British Empire. 1936 The XIth Olympics, the last for 12 years, opened in Berlin. 1975 Thirty-five nations, including the US and the USSR, signed the Helsinki Agreement on cooperation in human rights and other global issues. Born Claudius, Roman emperor, 10 BC; Je- an Baptiste de Lamarck, French zoologist, 1744; Richard Henry Dana, US novelist, 1815; Herman Melville, US novelist, 1819; Jack Kramer, US ten- nis champion, 1921; Yves Saint-Laurent, French couturier, 1936. Died Lo- uis VI, King of France, 1137; Queen Anne, 1714; Robert Morrison, English missionary and translator, 1834; Theodore Roethke, US poet, 1963; Walter Ulbricht, East German politician, 1973; John Ogdon, English concert pia- nist, 1989; Alfred Manessier, French painter, 1993. 2 August Feast day of St Theodota and her Three Sons, St Eusebius of Vercelli, St Plegmund, St Stephen I, pope, St Syagrius of Autun, and St Sidwell or Sativola. 1718 Britain, France, Austria, and Holland conclu- ded the Quadruple Alliance against Spain, in an attempt to prevent Spain from annexing Sardinia and Sicily. 1858 The rule of the East India Com- pany, which was established throughout India, was transferred to the British government. 1875 Britain's first roller skating rink was opened to the public, in Belgravia, London. 1894 Death duties, now known as in- heritance tax, were introduced in Britain. 1945 The Potsdam Conference, establishing the initial postwar treatment of Germany and demanding un- conditional Japanese surrender, ended. 1980 Right-wing terrorists explo- ded a bomb in the crowded Bologna Railroad Station, northern Italy, kil- ling 84 people. 1990 Iraq invaded and annexed Kuwait, precipitating an international crisis. Born John Tyndall, Irish physicist, 1820; Ethel M Dell, British novelist, 1881; Arthur Bliss, English composer, 1891; Myr- na Loy, US film actress, 1905; James Baldwin, US writer, 1924; Peter O'Toole, Irish actor, 1932; Sammy McIlroy, Irish footballer, 1954. Died Thomas Gainsborough, English painter, 1788; Jacques Йtienne Montgolfier, French balloonist, 1799; Enrico Caruso, Italian tenor, 1921; 1923; Louis Blйriot, French aviator, 1936; Fritz Lang, Austrian film director, 1976; Carlos Chavez, Mexican composer, 1978. 3 August Feast day of St Walthen or Waltheof, St Germanus of Auxerre, and St Thomas of Hales or Dover. 1492 Christopher Columbus left Palos de la Frontera in Andalusia, Spain, on his first voyage of discovery. 1778 La Scala opera house opened in Milan, Italy. 1858 Lake Victoria, the so- urce of the Nile, was discovered by the English explorer John Speke. 1904 A British expedition, led by Col Francis E Younghusband, became the first westerners to enter the 'Forbidden City' of Lhasa, Tibet. 1914 Germany declared war on France. 1914 The first ships passed through the completed Panama Canal. 1940 Latvia was incorporated into the USSR as a constituent republic. 1958 The USS Nautilus, the first nuclear submari- ne, passed under the North Pole. 1963 The Beatles played The Cavern in their home town, Liverpool, for the last time. Born Joseph Paxton, Eng- lish architect, 1801; Stanley Baldwin, British statesman, 1867; King Ha- akon VII of Norway, 1872; Rupert Brooke, English poet, 1887; Tony Ben- nett, US singer, 1926; Martin Sheen, US actor, 1940; Osvaldo Ardiles, Argentine footballer, 1953. Died James II, King of Scotland, 1460; Ric- hard Arkwright, English inventor, 1792; Roger Casement, Irish nationa- list, 1916; Joseph Conrad, British novelist, 1924; Colette, French nove- list, 1954; Lenny Bruce, US comedian, 1966. 4 August Feast day of St Molua or Lughaidh, St Ia, St Sezni, and St John Baptist Vianney. 1265 The Battle of Evesham took place, in which Simon de Montfort was defeated by Royalist forces led by the future King Edward I, during the Barons' War. 1578 The Portuguese were defeated by the Berbers at the Battle of Alcazarquivir. 1870 The British Red Cross Society was founded. 1914 Britain declared war on Germany after the Ger- mans had violated the Treaty of London, and World War I began. 1918 The Second Battle of the Marne ended. 1940 Italy invaded Kenya, the Sudan, and British Somaliland. 1966 In a US radio interview, John Lennon clai- med that the Beatles were probably more popular than Jesus Christ; Beat- les records were consequently banned in many US states and in South Af- rica. Born Percy Bysshe Shelley, English poet, 1792; William Henry Hud- son, British writer and naturalist, 1841; Knut Hamsun, Norwegian nove- list, 1859; HM Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Mother, 1900; Osbert Lancas- ter, English cartoonist and writer, 1908; Peter Squires, English rugby player, 1951. Died Henry I, King of France, 1060; Hans Christian Ander- sen, Danish fairy tale writer, 1875; James Cruze, US film director, 1942; Edgar Adrian, British physiologist, 1977; Pola Negri, German si- lent-film actress, 1987. 5 August Feast day of St Afra, St Nonna, and Saints Addai and Mari. 1583 English soldier and navigator Humphrey Gilbert claimed Newfoundland for Elizabeth I. 1858 The first transatlantic cable was opened when Qu- een Victoria exchanged greetings with US President Buchanan. 1891 The first American Express traveler's check was cashed. 1914 The first electrical traffic lights were installed, in Cleveland, Ohio. 1924 The Turkish government abolished polygamy. 1960 Upper Volta (now Burkina Fa- so) achieved full independence from France. 1962 ANC leader Nelson Man- dela was arrested and given a life sentence on charges of attempting to overthrow the South African government. 1963 The Test Ban Agreement was signed by the US, the USSR, and the UK, contracting to test nuclear wea- pons only underground. Born Niels Henrik Abel, Norwegian mathematician, 1802; Guy de Maupassant, French author, 1850; John Huston, US film di- rector, 1906; Joan Hickson, English actress, 1906; Neil Armstrong, US astronaut, 1930; Bob Geldof, Irish musician, 1951. Died Thomas Newcomen, English inventor, 1729; Frederick North, British politician, 1792; Ale- xis BenoЊt Soyer, French chef and writer, 1858; Friedrich Engels, German political writer, 1895; Marilyn Monroe, US film actress, 1962; Richard Burton, Welsh actor, 1984; Eugen Suchon, Slovakian composer, 1993. 6 August National Day of Bolivia. Feast of the Transfiguration and Fe- ast day of Saints Justus and Pastor, and St Hormisdas, pope. 939 The Spanish defeated the Moors at the Battle of Salamanca. 1806 The Holy Ro- man Empire came to an end when Francis II renounced the crown, becoming Francis I, Emperor of Austria. 1889 The Savoy Hotel, London, UK, opened. 1890 William Kemmler, a murderer, became the first man to be executed in the electric chair, in Auburn Prison, New York. 1926 US swimmer Gertrude Ederle became the first woman to swim the English Channel, in 14 hr 34 min. 1945 An atomic bomb was dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima from a US Boeing B29 bomber. 1962 Jamaica became independent after being a British colony for 300 years. 1974 US President Nixon resigned. 1988 Russian ballerina Natalia Makarova danced again with the Kirov Ballet in London, UK, 18 years after she defected to the West. Born Daniel O'Con- nell, Irish politician, 1775; Alfred Tennyson, English poet, 1809; Paul Claudel, French poet, 1868; Alexander Fleming, Scottish bacteriologist, 1881; Robert Mitchum, US film actor, 1917; Chris Bonington, British mo- untaineer, 1934. Died Anne Hathaway, wife of William Shakespeare, 1623; Ben Jonson, English playwright, 1637; Diego Velбzquez, Spanish painter, 1660; Fulgencio Batista y Zaldivar, Cuban dictator, 1973; Pope Paul VI, 1978. 7 August Feast day of St Donatus of Arezzo, St Victricius, Saints Aga- pitus, Sixtus II and Felicissimus, St Dogmetius the Persian, St Albert of Trapani, St Claudia, and St Cajetan or Gaetano. 1711 The first race meeting was held at Ascot, established by Queen Anne. 1830 Louis Philip- pe was proclaimed 'Citizen King' (Philippe Egalitй), for his support of the 1792 Revolution. 1840 The employment of climbing boys as chimney sweeps was prohibited by an Act of Parliament. 1858 Queen Victoria chose Ottawa as the capital of the Dominion of Canada. 1913 In Britain's first aviation tragedy, US airman 'Colonel' Samuel Cody was killed when his aircraft crashed at Farnborough. 1926 Britain's first automobile racing Grand Prix was held at Brooklands; the winning automobile averaged 71.61 mph. 1942 Guadalcanal, in the southern Solomon Islands, was assaulted by the US Marines in one of the most costly campaigns of World War II. 1960 The Ivory Coast (Cфte d'Ivoire) achieved independence from France. Born Mata Hari (Margaretha Geertruide Zelle), Dutch courtesan, dancer, and probable spy, 1876; Louis Leakey, British archeologist, 1903; Ralph Bunche, US diplomat, 1904; Greg Chappell, Australian cricketer, 1948; Alexei Sayle, British comedian, 1952. Died Robert Blake, British admi- ral, 1657; Bix Beiderbecke, US jazz musician and composer, 1931; Kons- tantin Stanislavsky, Russian theater director, 1938; Rabindranath Tago- re, Indian writer, 1941; Oliver Hardy, US film comedian, 1957. 8 August Feast day of St Dominic, Saints Cyriacus, Largus, and Smarag- dus, St Hormidas the Martyr, and The Fourteen Holy Helpers. 117 Hadrian became emperor of Rome following the death of his father Trajan. 1786 Mont Blanc, Europe's tallest peak, was climbed for the first time; Swiss scientist Horace Saussure had offered a prize for the accomplishment of this feat. 1940 The Battle of Britain, which would continue into the following Oct, began. 1945 The USSR declared war on Germany. 1963 The Great Train Robbery, in which over Ј2.5 million was stolen, took place near Bletchley, Buckinghamshire, UK. 1974 Richard Nixon became the first US president to resign from office in face of threats to impeach him for his implication in the Watergate scandal. 1988 The luckiest day of the decade, according to the Chinese, because the date - 8.8.88 - is a pa- lindrome. 1990 Iraq annexed Kuwait, precipitating the onset of the Gulf War. 1991 Islamic Jihad released John McCarthy, a British journalist who had been held hostage since April 1986. Born Godfrey Kneller, Ger- man-born painter, 1646; Ernest O Lawrence, US physicist, 1901; Dino De Laurentis, Italian film producer, 1919; Esther Williams, US swimmer and film actress, 1923; Andy Warhol, US Pop artist and filmmaker, 1931; Dus- tin Hoffman, US film actor, 1937; Nigel Mansell, British racing driver, 1953. Died Girolamo Fracastoro, Italian physician and writer, 1553; Ja- mes Tissot, French painter, 1902; Frank Winfield Woolworth, US chainsto- re founder, 1919; James Gould Cozzens, US novelist, 1978; Louise Brooks, US actress, 1985. 9 August Feast day of St Oswald of Northumbria, Saints Nathy and Felim, St Romanus, and St Emygius. 1842 The frontier between Canada and the US was defined by the Webster-Ashburton treaty, signed by the US and Brita- in. 1870 The British Parliament passed The Married Women's Property Act, improving the situation of the nation's wives. 1902 Following a six-week delay due to an emergency appendectomy, Edward VII was crowned king in Westminster Abbey. 1912 An earthquake struck Turkey, in the area of Is- tanbul, killing 6,000 people and rendering 40,000 homeless. 1945 The se- cond atomic bomb of World War II was dropped on the Japanese city of Na- gasaki. 1965 Singapore gained independence. 1969 Sharon Tate, actress wife of film director Roman Polanski, was murdered by Charles Manson and members of his commune 'The Family'. 1974 Succeeding Richard Nixon, Ge- rald Ford was sworn in as the 38th president of the US. 1979 Britain's first nudist beach was established in Brighton. Born Izaak Walton, Eng- lish author, 1593; Thomas Telford, Scottish civil engineer, 1757; Leonid Nikolayevich Andreyev, Russian author, 1871; Lйonide Massine, Russian dancer and choreographer, 1869; Philip Larkin, English poet, 1922; Rod Laver, Australian tennis player, 1938. Died Maarten Harpertszoon Tromp, Dutch admiral, 1653; Ruggiero Leoncavallo, Italian composer, 1919; Her- mann Hesse, German author, 1962; Joe Orton, English playwright, 1967; Dmitri Shostakovich, Russian composer, 1975. 10 August National Day of Ecuador. Feast day of St Laurence of Rome. 1675 King Charles II laid the foundation stone of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. 1787 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart completed his popular Eine Klei- ne Nachtmusik ('A Little Night Music'). 1846 The Smithsonian Institution was established in Washington DC, to foster scientific research. 1889 The screw bottle top was patented by Dan Rylands of Hope Glass Works, Yorkshire, UK. 1895 The first Promenade Concert was held at the Queen's Hall, London, UK, conducted by Henry Wood. 1904 In the Russo-Japanese War, Japan inflicted heavy losses on the Russian fleet at the Battle of the Yellow Sea, off Port Arthur. 1911 British MPs voted to receive sala- ries for the first time. 1966 Orbiter I, the first US lunar satellite, was launched. Born Charles James Napier, British general, 1782; Camillo Benso, Count Cavour, Italian nationalist politician, 1810; Herbert Hoo- ver, 31st US president, 1874; Eddie Fisher, US singer, 1928; Anita Lons- borough Porter, English swimmer, 1941. Died Allan Ramsay, Scottish port- rait painter, 1784; Edward William Lane, English traveler and transla- tor, 1876; Otto Lillienthal, German aviator, 1896. 11 August Feast day of St Attracta or Araght, St Clare of Assisi, St Tiburtius, St Susanna, St Equitius, St Alexander of Comana, St Lelia, St Blane, St Gerard of Gallinaro, and St Gery or Gaugericus. 1576 English navigator Martin Frobisher, on his search for the Northwest Passage, en- tered the bay in Canada now named for him. 1810 Severe earthquakes struck the Azores, causing the village of Sгo Miguel to sink. 1877 Pho- bos and Deimos, the satellites or 'moons' of Mars, were discovered by US astronomer Asaph Hall. 1941 President Roosevelt and Winston Churchill signed the Atlantic Charter, largely to demonstrate public solidarity between the Allies. 1952 King Talal of Jordan was deposed because of mental illness, and his son, Crown Prince Hussein, succeeded to the throne. 1960 Chad gained its independence from France. 1963 Canton was entered by Chinese General Chiang Kai-shek and his supporters. 1965 Watts, Los Angeles, US saw the worst outbreak of racial violence since WWII. Born Jean Victor Marie Moreau, French General, 1772; Charlotte Ma- ry Yonge, English novelist, 1823; Hugh MacDiarmid, Scottish poet, 1892; Enid Blyton, English author, 1897; Alun Hoddinott, Welsh composer, 1929; Anna Massey, English actress, 1937. Died Hans Memling, Flemish painter, 1495; John Henry Newman, English Roman Catholic theologian, 1890; Andrew Carnegie, US industrialist and philanthropist, 1919; Jackson Pollock, US painter, 1956. 12 August Feast day of St Porcarius and his Companions, St Jambert, Archbishop of Canterbury, St Euplus, and St Murtagh or Muredach. 1687 The Austro-Hungarians defeated the Turks at the Battle of Mohбcs, in Hungary, effectively ending Turkish expansion into Europe. 1812 In the Peninsular War, the Duke of Wellington's troops entered Madrid. 1851 The US schooner America won a race around the Isle of Wight, giving rise to the later America's Cup trophy. 1883 The quagga in Amsterdam Zoo died, the last of this species in the world. 1898 Spain and the US concluded an armistice over Cuba and other possessions. 1944 PLUTO ('pipe line un- der the ocean') began operating beneath the English Channel, supplying gasoline to Allied forces in France. 1969 The world's first communicati- ons satellite was launched - America's Echo. 1991 England defeated the West Indies in the fifth Test Match at the Oval, to draw the summer se- ries 2-2. Born Thomas Bewick, British wood engraver, 1753; King George IV, 1762; Robert Southey, English poet, 1774; Cecil B De Mille, US film director and producer, 1881; George Hamilton, US film actor, 1939; Mark Knopfler, rock guitarist, 1949. Died Giovanni Gabrieli, Italian compo- ser, 1612; William Blake, English poet, 1827; George Stephenson, English engineer, 1848; Thomas Mann, German novelist, 1955; Ian Fleming, English novelist, 1964; Henry Fonda, US film actor, 1982. 13 August Feast day of St Simplician of Milan, St Radegund, St Wigbert, St Pontian, pope, St Benildus, St Hippolytus of Rome, St Narses Klaie- tus, St Cassian of Imola, and St Maximus the Confessor. 1521 Spanish conquistador Hernбndo Cortйs recaptured Tenochtitlбn (Mexico City), and overthrew the Aztec empire. 1705 The Battle of Blenheim took place in southern Germany, in which the Anglo-Austrian army inflicted a decisive defeat on the French armies. 1814 The Cape of Good Hope Province became a British colony when it was ceded by the Dutch (sold for Ј6 million). 1868 Earthquakes killed over 25,000 people and destroyed four cities in Peru and Ecuador. 1923 Kemal Atatьrk was elected the first president of Turkey. 1961 The border between East and West Berlin was sealed off by East Germany with the closure of the Brandenburg Gate to stop the exodus to the West. 1964 The last hangings in Britain took place; two murderers were executed at Liverpool and Manchester. 1966 The Chinese Cultural Re- volution began. 1972 The last US troops left Vietnam. 1991 Prosecutors announced the discovery of one of the largest bank frauds in Japan's history, involving $2.5 billion in fraudulently obtained loans. Born Qu- een Adelaide, consort of William IV, 1756; John Baird, Scottish televi- sion pioneer, 1888; Alfred Hitchcock, English film director, 1899; Basil Spence, British architect, 1907; Ben Hogan, US golfer, 1912; Fidel Cast- ro, Cuban leader, 1927. Died Renй Laлnnec, French physician, 1826; Eugи- ne Delacroix, French painter, 1863; John Everett Millais, British pain- ter, 1896; Florence Nightingale, English nurse, 1910; H G Wells, English writer, 1946; Henry Williamson, English author, 1977. 14 August Feast day of St Marcellus of Apamea, St Fachanan, St Athana- sia of Aegina, St Eusebius of Rome, and St Maximilian Kolbe. 1678 The French repulsed William of Orange at the Battle of Mons, in Belgium. 1880 Cologne Cathedral was completed; it had been started in the 13th century. 1882 Cetewayo, King of Zululand, South Africa, was received by Queen Victoria. 1893 France became the first country to introduce vehic- le registration plates. 1900 The Boxer Uprising was ended and Beijing captured by an international punitive force. 1947 Pakistan became an in- dependent dominion. 1969 The first British troops were deployed in Nort- hern Ireland to restore order. 1986 Pakistani politician Benazir Bhutto was arrested by President Zia and detained in prison for 30 days. Born Samuel Wesley, English organist and composer, 1810; John Galsworthy, English novelist and playwright, 1867; Fred Davis, English snooker pla- yer, 1913; Frederic Raphael, English novelist, 1931; Sarah Brightman, English soprano and actress, 1961. Died Augustus Toplady, British priest and hymn-writer, 1778; Alfred Harmsworth, British newspaper proprietor, 1922; William Randolph Hearst, US newspaper proprietor, 1951; Bertolt Brecht, German writer, 1956; J B Priestley, English novelist and playw- right, 1984. 15 August Feast day of The Assumption of the Virgin Mary, St Tarsicius, and St Arnulf of Soissons. 1543 The Jesuit order (Society of Jesus) was founded by Ignatius de Loyola in Paris, with the aims of protecting Cat- holicism against the Reformation and carrying out missionary work. 1843 The Tivoli Pleasure Gardens were opened in Copenhagen. 1945 Japan sur- rendered unconditionally to the US and their allies, bringing an end to WWII. 1947 India gained independence. 1948 The republic of South Korea was proclaimed. 1965 The National Guard was called in to quell race ri- ots in Watts, Los Angeles, which left 28 dead and 676 injured. 1969 The Woodstock Music and Arts Fair began on a dairy farm in upstate New York. In the three days it lasted, 400,000 attended, two children were born, and three people died. 1987 Caning was officially banned in British schools (excluding independent schools). Born Napoleon Bonaparte, French emperor, 1769; Sir Walter Scott, Scottish novelist, 1771; Thomas De Qu- incey, English writer, 1785; T E Lawrence, English soldier and writer, 1888; Robert Bolt, British dramatist, 1924; Princess Anne, the Princess Royal, 1950. Died Macbeth, King of Scotland, 1057; Joseph Joachim, Hun- garian violinist and composer, 1907; Will Rogers, US humorist, 1935; Wi- ley Post, US aviator, 1935; Paul Signac, French painter, 1935; Renй Mag- ritte, Belgian painter, 1967. 16 August Feast day of St Stephen of Hungary, St Armel, and St Arsaci- us. 1513 King Henry VIII and his troops defeated the French in the Batt- le of the Spurs, at Guinigatte, NW France. 1743 The earliest prize-ring code of boxing rules was formulated in England by the champion pugilist Jack Broughton. 1819 The Peterloo massacre took place in Manchester when militia opened fire on a crowd gathered to hear discussion of reform, killing 11 people. 1897 Endowed by the sugar merchant Henry Tate, the Tate Gallery, in London, UK, was opened. 1934 US explorer Charles Beebe and engineer Otis Barton made a record-breaking dive to 923 m/3028 ft in their bathysphere (a spherical diving vessel) near Bermuda. 1960 Cyprus became an independent republic, with Archbishop Makarios as president. 1974 Turkish forces called a cease-fire in Cyprus, after having taken control of the northern part of the island. Born Arthur Cayley, British mathematician, 1821; Johan Siegwald Dahl, Norwegian painter, 1827; Me- nachem Begin, Israeli statesman, 1913; Ted Hughes, English poet, 1930; Jeff Thomson, Australian cricketer, 1950; Madonna, US rock singer, 1958. Died Joe Miller, English comedian, 1738; Robert Wilhelm Bunsen, German chemist and inventor, 1899; Umberto Boccioni, Italian sculptor, 1916; Margaret Mitchell, US novelist, 1949; Bela Lugosi, US film actor, 1956; Elvis Presley, US rock singer, 1977; Irene Sharaff, US film-set and cos- tume designer, 1993; Alison Smithson, English architect, 1993; Stewart Granger, English-born US actor, 1993. 17 August National Day of Indonesia. Feast day of St Joan Delanoue, St Mamas, St Liberatus of Capua, St Rock or Roch, St Clare of Montefalco, St Hyacinth, and St Eusebius, pope. 1833 The Canadian Royal William, the first steamship to cross the Atlantic entirely under power, set off from Nova Scotia. 1836 Under the Registration Act, the registration of births, deaths, and marriages was introduced in Britain. 1876 The first performance of Wagner's opera Gцtterdдmmerung was given in Bayreuth, Germany. 1896 Gold was discovered at Bonanza Creek in Canada's Yukon Territory, leading to the great gold rush of 1898. 1976 Earthquakes and tidal waves in the Philippines resulted in the deaths of over 6,000 pe- ople. 1989 Electronic tagging was used for the first time in Britain, on Richard Hart, accused of theft. Born Davy Crockett, US frontiersman, 1786; Mae West, US film actress, 1892; George Melly, English jazz sin- ger, 1926; V S Naipaul, English novelist, 1932; Robert De Niro, US film actor, 1943; Alan Minter, middleweight boxer, 1951; Robin Cousins, ice skater, 1957. Died Frederick II (the Great), King of Prussia, 1786; Ho- norй de Balzac, French novelist, 1850; Fernand Lйger, French painter, 1955; Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, US architect, 1973; Ira Gershwin, US ly- ricist, 1983; Mohammad Zia ul-Haq, Pakistani general, 1988. 18 August Feast day of St Helena, Saints Florus and Laurus, St Agapi- tus, St Alipius, and St Beatrice or Brites da Silva. 1759 The British, under Admiral ('Old Dreadnought') Boscawen, defeated the French fleet at the Battle of Lagos Bay. 1812 Napoleon's forces defeated the Russians at the Battle of Smolensk. 1866 The Treaty of Alliance forming the North German Confederation, under the leadership of Prussia, was signed. 1941 Britain's National Fire Service was established. 1960 The first oral contraceptive was marketed by the Searle Drug Company in the US. 1964 South Africa was banned from participating in the Olympics because of its racial policies. 1967 The town of Long Beach, in California, purcha- sed the liner Queen Mary. Born Antonio Salieri, Italian composer, 1750; Franz Josef I, Austro-Hungarian emperor, 1830; Moura Lympany, English concert pianist, 1916; Shelley Winters, US film actress, 1922; Roman Po- lanski, Polish film director, 1933; Robert Redford, US film actor, 1937. Died Genghis Khan, 1227; Guido Reni, Italian painter, 1642; Andrй Jacqu- es Garnerin, French balloonist, 1823; William Henry Hudson, US writer, 1922; Anita Loos, US writer, 1981; Nikolaus Pevsner, architectural his- torian, 1983. 19 August Feast day of St Mocha, Saints Agapius and Timothy, St Sebald, St Thecla, St Andrew the Tribune, St Sixtus III, St Berulf of Bobbio, St Louis of Anjou, St John Eudes, and St Credan of Evesham. 1274 The coro- nation of Edward I took place. 1796 France and Spain formed an alliance against Britain. 1897 Electric-powered cabs appeared in London, UK; they proved to be uneconomical and were withdrawn in 1900. 1934 A plebiscite was held in Germany giving sole power to Adolf Hitler, the Fьhrer. 1942 British and Canadian troops raided the port of Dieppe, resulting in hea- vy casualties for the attacking force. 1989 Poland became the first eas- tern European country to end one-party rule, when a coalition government was formed with Tadeuz Mazowiecki as prime minister. 1991 President Gor- bachev was deposed in a dawn coup. Born John Dryden, English poet, 1631; John Flamsteed, first Astronomer Royal, 1646; James Nasmyth, Scottish inventor, 1808; Gabrielle (Coco) Chanel, French couturier, 1883; Ogden Nash, US humorist, 1902; Bill Clinton, 42nd US president, 1945. Died Au- gustus, 1st Roman emperor, 14; Blaise Pascal, French philosopher and mathematician, 1662; Sergei Pavlovich Diaghilev, Russian chorographer, 1929; Federico GarcЎa Lorca, Spanish poet and playwright, 1936; 'Grouc- ho' Marx, US comedian, 1977; Frederick Ashton, British choreographer, 1988. 20 August Feast day of St Rognwald or Ronald, St Bernard of Clairvaux, St Amator or Amadour, St Philibert, and St Oswin. 1710 The French were defeated by the Austrians at the Battle of Saragossa. 1914 German forces occupied Brussels. 1924 Although considered the likely winner, British sprinter Eric Liddel refused to run in the 100-meter heats at the Paris Olympics because it fell on a Sunday. 1956 Calder Hall nuclear power plant, Britain's first nuclear power station, began operating. 1960 Se- negal gained independence from France. 1968 Russian troops invaded Czec- hoslovakia. 1977 The US Voyager I spacecraft was launched on its journey via Jupiter and Saturn to become the first artificial object to leave the solar system. Born Thomas Corneille, French playwright, 1625; Benja- min Harrison, 23rd US president, 1833; Raymond Poincarй, French states- man, 1860; H P Lovecraft, US writer, 1890; Jack Teagarden, US jazz trom- bonist, 1905; Jim Reeves, US country singer, 1924. Died Friedrich Wil- helm Joseph von Schelling, German philosopher, 1854; Adolphe William Bo- uguereau, French painter, 1905; William Booth, founder of the Salvation Army, 1912; Paul Ehrlich, German biochemist, 1915; Leon Trotsky, Russian politician, 1940. 21 August Feast day of St Pius X, pope, St Abraham of Smolensk, St Si- donius Apollinaris, Saints Bonosus and Maximian, and Saints Cisellus and Camerinus. 1808 The French forces, under General Junot, were defeated by Wellington at the Battle of Vimiero. 1901 The Cadillac Motor Company was formed in Detroit, Michigan, US, named for the French explorer, Antoine Cadillac. 1911 Leonardo da Vinci's painting, the Mona Lisa, was stolen from the Louvre in Paris - it was recovered two years later. 1939 Civil Defence, to mitigate the effects of enemy attack, was started in Brita- in. 1959 Hawaii became the 50th of the United States. 1991 An attempted coup d'йtat in the USSR failed; faced with international condemnation and popular protests led by Boris Yeltsin, the junta stepped down and Gorbachev was reinstated. Born William Murdock, Scottish inventor, 1754; King William IV, 1765; Aubrey Beardsley, English illustrator, 1872; Co- unt Basie, US jazz pianist and bandleader, 1904; HRH Princess Margaret, 1930; Janet Baker, English mezzo-soprano, 1933. Died Richard Crashaw, English poet, 1649; Aston Webb, English architect, 1930; Leonard Cons- tant Lambert, English composer, 1951; Jacob Epstein, British sculptor, 1959; Benigno Aquino, Philippine politician, 1983; Tatiana Troyanos, US operatic mezzo-soprano, 1993. 22 August Feast day of St Timothy, St Andrew of Fiesole, St Sigfrid of Wearmouth, and St John Kemble. 1642 The English Civil War began, between the supporters of Charles I and of Parliament, when the king raised his standard at Nottingham. 1788 The British settlement in Sierra Leone was founded, the purpose of which was to secure a home in Africa for freed slaves from England. 1846 New Mexico was annexed by the US. 1864 The In- ternational Red Cross was founded by the Geneva Convention to assist the wounded and prisoners of war. 1910 Korea was annexed by Japan. 1985 Fol- lowing an aborted take-off, a British Airtours Boeing 737 burst into flames on the runway at Manchester Airport; 55 persons were killed. Born Claude Debussy, French composer, 1862; Jacques Lipchitz, US sculptor and painter, 1891; Dorothy Parker, US humorist and writer, 1893; Henri Car- tier-Bresson, French photographer, 1908; Ray Bradbury, US writer, 1920; Karlheinz Stockhausen, German composer, 1928. Died Jean Honorй Frago- nard, French painter, 1806; Michael Collins, Irish nationalist, 1922; Oliver Lodge, English physicist, 1940; Michael Fokine, Russian dancer and choreographer, 1942; William Richard Morris, British automobile ma- nufacturer, 1963. 23 August National Day of Romania. Feast day of St Rose of Lima, Saints Asterius and Claudius, St Tydfil, St Philip Benizi, and St Eugene or Eoghan of Ardstraw. 1813 The French were driven back by the Prussians under General von Bьlow at the Battle of Grossbeeren. 1839 Hong Kong was taken by the British. 1914 The British Expeditionary Force fought its first battle at Mons, in the First World War. 1921 Faisal I was crowned as King of Iraq. 1927 Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, two Ita- lo-American anarchists, were falsely accused of robbery and murder, and were sent to the electric chair. 1939 The USSR and Germany signed a non-aggression pact which, although short-lived, eased the way for Hit- ler's invasion of Poland. 1940 The Blitz began as German bombers began an all-night raid on London, UK. 1948 The World Council of Churches was founded. Born Louis XVI, King of France, 1754; Edgar Lee Masters, US po- et and novelist, 1869; Gene Kelly, US dancer and singer, 1912; Peter Thomson, Australian golfer, 1929; Willy Russell, English playwright, 1947; Keith Moon, British rock drummer, 1947. Died William Wallace, Scottish patriot, 1305; Charles Auguste de Coulomb, French physicist, 1806; Rudolph Valentino, Italian-born film actor, 1926; Oscar Hammerste- in II, US lyricist, 1960; Didier Peroni, French racing driver, 1987. 24 August Feast day of St Bartholomew, The Martyrs of Utica, and St Au- denoeus or Ouen AD 79 Mount Vesuvius erupted and buried the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum in hot volcanic ash. 410 The Visigoths, led by Alaric, sacked Rome. 1572 Charles IX ordered the massacre of the Hugue- nots throughout France; in Paris thousands were killed in what became known as the Massacre of St Bartholomew. 1704 The French were defeated by the English and Dutch fleets at the Battle of Malaga. 1814 British forces captured Washington, DC and set the White House on fire. 1921 The Turkish army, led by Mustafa Kemal, drove back the Greeks at the Battle of the Sakkaria River. 1959 The Manchester Guardian was renamed the Gu- ardian. Born George Stubbs, English painter, 1724; William Wilberforce, English philanthropist, 1759; Max Beerbohm, English writer and caricatu- rist, 1872; Graham Sutherland, English painter, 1903; Charles Causley, English poet, 1917; Stephen Fry, English actor and writer, 1957. Died Pliny the Elder, Roman naturalist and writer, 79; Alaric I, King of the Visigoths, 410; Thomas Blood, Irish adventurer, 1680; Thomas Chatterton, English poet, 1770; Nicolas Lйonard Sadi Carnot, French physicist, 1832; Ronald Knox, British theologian, 1957. 25 August National Day of Uruguay. Feast day of St Ebba, St Genesius the Comedian, St Gregory of Utrecht, St Louis IX, King of France, St Mennas of Constantinople, and St Patricia. 325 The Council of Nicaea set the rules for the computation of Easter. 1830 A revolution against the Netherlands union erupted in Brussels. 1914 Louvain was sacked by the Germans. 1919 The first daily scheduled flights started between London and Paris. 1931 Ramsay MacDonald formed a National Government. 1940 The RAF made the first air raid on Berlin. 1944 The Allies liberated Paris. 1960 The XVIIth Olympic Games opened in Rome. 1989 The US space probe Voyager reached Neptune; pictures of Triton, its moon, revealed the existence of two additional moons. Born Ivan IV ('The Terrible'), Tsar of Russia, 1530; Allan Pinkerton, founder of the US detective agency, 1819; Leonard Bernstein, US conductor and composer, 1918; Sean Connery, Scottish actor, 1930; Martin Amis, English novelist, 1949. Died Jan Ver- meer, Dutch painter, 1691; David Hume, Scottish philosopher, 1776; Wil- liam Herschel, English astronomer, 1822; Michael Faraday, English che- mist and physicist, 1867; Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche, German philosop- her, 1900; Truman Capote, US author, 1984. 26 August Feast day of St Bergwine, archbishop of Canterbury, St John Wall, St Mary Desmaisieres, St Pandonia, and St Teresa Jornet Ihars. 55 BC Julius Caesar landed in Britain. 1346 King Edward III, aided by the Black Prince, his son, defeated the French at the Battle of Crйcy. 1789 The French Assembly adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man. 1846 Mendelssohn's oratorio Elijah was first performed, Birmingham Festival. 1883 Krakatoa, the island volcano, began erupting, killing thousands. 1920 Women in the US were granted the right to vote. 1936 The Ang- lo-Egyptian alliance was signed. 1952 The USSR announced that it had successfully tested the ICBM (Intercontinental Ballistic Missile). 1972 The XXth Olympic Games opened in Munich. 1978 Cardinal Albino Luciani was elected Pope John Paul I. Born Sir Robert Walpole, English states- man, 1676; Prince Albert, Consort to Queen Victoria, 1819; Lee De Fo- rest, US physicist, 1873; Jules Romains, French novelist, playwright and poet, 1885; Christopher Isherwood, English novelist, 1904. Died Frans Hals, Dutch painter, 1666; Anton van Leeuwenhoek, Dutch naturalist and microscopist, Louis Philippe, 'Citizen King' of France, 1850; Charles Lindbergh, US pioneer aviator, 1974; Charles Boyer, French actor, 1978. 27 August Feast day of St Caesarius of Arles, St David Lewis, Little St Hugh, St Monica, St Margaret the Barefooted, St Marcellus of Tomi, and St Poemen. 1784 The first balloon ascent was made in Britain by James Tytler at Edinburgh. 1813 Napoleon defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Dresden. 1816 Algiers, then a refuge for Barbary pirates, was bombar- ded by Lord Exmouth. 1859 Edwin Drake was the first in the US to strike oil - at Titusville, Pennsylvania. 1913 A Russian pilot, Lieutenant Pe- ter Nesterov, became the first to perform the loop-the-loop. 1928 The anti-war Kellogg-Briand Pact was signed by 15 nations. 1939 The first jet-propelled aircraft, the Heinkel 178, made its first flight. 1958 The USSR launched Sputnik 3, carrying two dogs. 1987 At about 30,000 feet above the US, the amorous behavior of a just-married couple caused the pilot of a jet-liner on a coast-to-coast flight to land in Houston; the couple faced a maximum of one year in prison. Born Confucius, Chinese philosopher, 551 BC; Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, German philosopher, 1770; Samuel Goldwyn, US film magnate, 1882; Man Ray, US photographer, painter and sculptor, 1882; Lyndon B Johnson, 36th US President, 1908; Donald Bradman, Australian cricketer, 1908; Lester Young, US jazz saxop- honist, 1909; Mother Teresa, Albanian-born Indian missionary, 1910. Died Titian, Italian painter, 1576; James Thomson, Scottish poet, 1748; Louis Botha, South African statesman, 1919; Le Corbusier, Swiss architect, 1965; Haile Selassie, deposed Emperor of Ethiopia, 1975; Earl Mountbat- ten of Burma, murdered by the IRA, 1979. 28 August Feast day of St Augustine of Hippo, St Alexander of Constan- tinople, St Edmund Arrowsmith, St Julian of Brioude, and St Moses of Abyssinia. 1640 The Indian War in New England ended with the surrender of the Indians. 1849 Venice was taken by the Austrians after a siege. 1850 The Channel telegraph cable was laid between Dover and Cap Gris Nez. 1914 The Battle of Heligoland Bight, the first major naval battle of World War I, was fought. 1933 For the first time in Britain, a BBC-broadcasted appeal was used by the police in tracking down a wanted man. 1945 US forces under General George Marshall landed in Japan. 1963 The massive (200,000 people) civil rights march from the South ended in Washington, DC where Martin Luther King delivered his famous 'I have a dream' speech. 1988 The Yan Hee Polyclinic in Bangkok, Thailand, repor- ted on a new slimming technique - overweight Thais were suppressing the- ir appetites by sticking lettuce seeds in their ears and pressing them in ten times before meals. Born Johann Wolfgang Goethe, German poet, no- velist and dramatist, 1749; Edward Burne-Jones, British painter, 1833; Liam O'Flaherty, Irish novelist, 1896; Godfrey Hounsfield, British in- ventor of the EMI-scanner, 1919; Ben Gazzara, US film actor, 1930. Died Hugo Grotius, Dutch jurist and politician, 1645; William Smith, British geologist, 1839; Leigh Hunt, critic and poet, 1859; Ernest Orlando Law- rence, US physicist, 1958; Prince William of Gloucester, killed in an air crash, 1972, John Huston, US film director, 1988. 29 August Feast day of St Sabina of Rome, St Edwold of Cerne, and St Medericus or Merry. 1526 The Hungarians were defeated by the Turks at the Battle of Mohacs. 1831 Michael Faraday successfully demonstrated the first electrical transformer at the Royal Institute, London, UK. 1835 The city of Melbourne, Australia, was founded. 1842 The Treaty of Nan- king was signed between the British and the Chinese, ending the Opium War, and leasing the Hong Kong territories to Britain. 1848 The Boers were defeated by the British army at Boomplatz. 1882 Australia defeated England at cricket for the first time; the Sporting Times published an 'obituary' for English cricket. 1895 The Rugby League (called the 'Nort- hern Union' until 1922) was formed from 21 clubs in the North of Eng- land. 1904 The third Olympic Games opened at St Louis, Missouri. 1953 The USSR exploded a hydrogen bomb. 1966 At Candlestick Park, San Fran- cisco, the Beatles played their last live concert. 1991 The Supreme So- viet voted to suspend formally all activities of the Communist Party. Born John Locke, English philosopher, 1632; Jean Auguste Dominique Ing- res, French painter, 1780; Ingrid Bergman, Swedish actress, 1915; Char- lie Parker, US jazz saxophonist, 1920; Richard Attenborough, English ac- tor and director, 1923; Richard Gere, US actor, 1949; Michael Jackson, US pop singer, 1958. Died Brigham Young, US Mormon leader, 1877; Cesare Pavese, Italian novelist, 1950; Йamon de Valera, Irish nationalist poli- tician, 1975; Ingrid Bergman, Swedish actress, 1982; Lee Marvin, US ac- tor, 1987. 30 August Feast day of Saints Felix and Audauctus, St Fantinus, St Pam- machius, St Margaret Ward, and St Ruan or Rumon. 1762 The French defea- ted Frederick II, King of Prussia, at Johannesburg. 1860 The first Bri- tish tramway, operated by the Birkenhead Street Railway, was inaugurated by an American, George Francis Train. 1862 'Stonewall' Jackson led the Confederates to victory at the second Battle of Bull Run, in Virginia, during the American Civil War. 1881 The first stereo system, for a te- lephonic broadcasting service, was patented in Germany by Clement Adler. 1901 Hubert Cecil Booth patented the vacuum cleaner. 1916 Paul von Hin- denburg became Chief of the General Staff of Germany. 1939 In anticipa- tion of German bombing, the great evacuation of children from British cities began, four days before the outbreak of World War II. 1941 The siege of Leningrad by German forces began (ended in Jan 1943). 1963 To reduce the risk of accidental nuclear war, the 'Hotline' between the US President and the Soviet Premier was established. Born Jacques Louis Da- vid, French painter, 1748; Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, English writer, 1797; Ernest Rutherford, New Zealand physicist, 1871; Raymond Massey, Canadian film actor, 1896; Fred MacMurray, US film actor, 1908; Denis Healey, British politician, 1917; Jean Claude Killy, French ski champi- on, 1943. Died Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, 30 BC; Louis XI, King of Fran- ce, 1483; John Ross, Scottish explorer, 1856; Georges Sorel, French so- cialist philosopher, 1922; J(oseph) J(ohn) Thomson, English physicist, 1940. 31 August National Day of Malaysia, and of Trinidad and Tobago. Feast Day of St Paulinus of Trier, St Aidan of Lindisfarne, St Raymond Nonna- tus, and The Servite Martyrs of Prague. 1422 Henry VI, aged nine months, acceded as King. 1888 The body of Mary Ann 'Polly' Nichols, the first victim of Jack the Ripper, was found mutilated in Buck's Row. 1900 Coca Cola first went on sale in Britain. 1928 The Brecht-Weill musical The Threepenny Opera was first performed, in Berlin. 1942 The German offen- sive was halted by the British at the Battle of Alam al-Halfa, marking the turning-point in the North African Campaign. 1957 Malaya, later Ma- laysia, became independent. 1972 US swimmer Mark Spitz won five of the seven gold medals he achieved in total at the Munich Olympics. 1983 The USSR shot down a South Korean airliner, killing 269 people aboard. 1984 A tropical storm hit the Philippines, killing over 1,000 people. 1989 Buckingham Palace issued a brief statement stating that the Princess Ro- yal, Princess Anne, was separating from her husband, Captain Mark Phil- lips. Born Caligula, Roman emperor, 12; Jahangir, Mogul emperor, 1569; Maria Montessori, Italian educator, 1870; Fredric March, US actor, 1897; Bernard Lovell, British astronomer, 1913; James Coburn, US film actor, 1928; Van Morrison, Irish rock vocalist, 1945; Edwin Moses, US athlete, 1955. Died King Henry V, 1422; John Bunyan, English author, 1688; Char- les Pierre Baudelaire, French poet, 1867; Georges Braque, French pain- ter, 1963; Rocky Marciano, US heavyweight boxer, 1969; John Ford, US film director, 1973; Henry Moore, British sculptor, 1986. 1 September National Day of Libya. Feast Day of St Fiacre, St Giles or Aegidiu, St Drithelm, St Lupus or Leu of Sens, St Sebe, St Priscus of Capua, and St Verena. AD 70 The destruction of Jerusalem under Titus to- ok place. 1853 The world's first triangular postage stamps were issued by the Cape of Good Hope. 1870 The siege of Metz (Franco-German War) started. 1886 The Severn Tunnel was opened for goods traffic. 1920 The state of Lebanon was created by the French. 1923 Nearly 200,000 people were killed in earthquakes in Tokyo and Yokohama. 1928 Albania was dec- lared a kingdom, with Zog I as king. 1933 The Shape of Things to Come, the classic science fiction novel by H G Wells, was published. 1939 Ger- many invaded Poland, starting World War II. 1969 Colonel Khaddhafi sei- zed power in Libya, after overthrowing King Idris I. 1972 Bobby Fischer beat Boris Spassky at Reykjavik, becoming the first US world chess cham- pion. Born Engelbert Humperdinck, German composer, 1854; Roger David Ca- sement, Irish nationalist, 1864; Edgar Rice Burroughs, US novelist, 1875; Francis Aston, English physicist, 1877; Rocky Marciano, US heavy- weight boxer, 1923; Lily Tomlin, US comedienne, 1939; Leonard Slatkin, US conductor, 1954. Died Pope Adrian IV, the only English pope, 1159; Jacques Cartier, French explorer, 1557; Louis XIV, the 'Sun King' of France, 1715; Richard Westmacott, British sculptor, 1856; Siegfried Sas- soon, English writer, 1967; Franзois Mauriac, French novelist, 1970. 2 September Feast day of St William of Roskilde, The Martyrs of Septem- ber 1792, St Agricolus, St Antoninus of Pamiers, St Brocard, and St Cas- tor of Apt. 31 BC Emperor Augustus (Octavian) defeated Antony at the Battle of Actium. 1666 The Great Fire of London started; it destroyed 13,000 buildings in four days. 1752 The Julian calendar was used in Bri- tain and the Colonies 'officially' for the last time; as in the rest of Europe, the following day became 14 Sept in the Gregorian calendar. 1898 The British, led by Lord Kitchener, defeated the Sudanese at the Battle of Omdurman and re-occupied Khartoum, the capital. 1906 Roald Amundsen completed his sailing round Canada's Northwest Passage. 1923 The Irish Free State held its first elections. 1939 Under the National Service Bill, men aged 19-41 were conscripted in Britain. 1958 China's first te- levision station opened in Peking. 1987 The CD-video, combining digital sound with high-definition video, was launched by Philips. Born John Ho- ward, English philanthropist, 1726; Giovanni Verga, Italian novelist and dramatist, 1840; Wilhelm Ostwald, German chemist, 1853; Frederick Soddy, English physical chemist, 1877; Michael Hastings, English dramatist, 1938; Jimmy Connors, US tennis player, 1952. Died Josй Ribera ('Lo Spag- noletto'), Spanish painter, 1652; Thomas Telford, Scottish civil engine- er, 1834; Henri Rousseau, French painter, 1910; Pierre de Coubertin, fo- under of the modern Olympics, 1937; J R R Tolkein, English writer, 1973. 3 September Feast Day of St Simeon Stylites the Younger, St Phoebe, St Remaclus, St Aigulf or Ayoul of Lerins, St Gregory the Great, St Cuth- burga, St Hildelitha, and St Macanisius. 1650 Cromwell defeated the Scots at the second Battle of Dunbar. 1651 The Royalist troops under Charles II were defeated by Oliver Cromwell at the second Battle of Wor- cester. 1783 Britain recognized US independence with the signing of a treaty in Paris. 1916 The first Zeppelin was shot down over England. 1930 Santo Domingo, in the Dominican Republic, was destroyed by a hurri- cane which killed 5,000 people. 1935 Malcolm Campbell reached a new world land speed record of 301.13 mph in Bluebird on Bonneville Salt Flats, Utah. 1939 Britain, New Zealand, Australia, and France declared war on Germany. 1943 The Allies landed at Salerno, on mainland Italy, and the Italian government surrendered. 1967 Sweden changed from driving on the left to the right. 1976 The US spacecraft Viking 2 landed on Mars and began sending pictures of the red planet to earth. Born Joseph Wright, British painter, 1734; Louis Henry Sullivan, US architect, 1856; Jean-Lйon Jaurиs, French socialist politician, 1859; Macfarlane Burnet, Australian immunologist, 1899; Alan Ladd, US actor, 1913; Brian Lochore, New Zealand rugby player, 1940. Died Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector, 1658; Ivan Sergeyevich Turgenev, Russian dramatist, 1883; e e cummings, poet, US 1962; Frederick Louis MacNiece, British poet, 1963; Ho Chi Minh, president of North Vietnam, 1969; Frank Capra, US film director, 1991; David Brown, English engineer and industrialist, 1993. 4 September Feast day of St Rosalio, St Rose of Viterbo, Saints Marcel- lus and Valerian, St Marinus of San Marino, St Boniface I, pope, St Ul- tan of Ardbraccan, and St Ida of Herzfeld. 1260 The Battle of Montaper- ti, between the rival Guelphs and Ghibellines, was fought in Central Italy. 1870 Emperor Napoleon III, Bonaparte's nephew, was deposed and the Third Republic was proclaimed. 1886 Geronimo, the Apache chief, sur- rendered to the US army. 1909 The first Boy Scout rally was held at Crystal Palace, near London, UK. 1940 The US Columbia Broadcasting Sys- tem gave a demonstration of color TV on station W2XAB. 1944 The Allies liberated Antwerp, Belgium. 1970 Natalia Makarova, of the Kirov Ballet, defected to the West. 1985 The wreck of the Titanic on the Atlantic sea- board was photographed by remote control. 1988 British Customs officials thwarted the first known attempt by persons to smuggle drugs into Brita- in from Holland using a helicopter. Born Vicomte Franзois Renй de Chate- aubriand, French author, 1768; Anton Bruckner, Austrian composer, 1824; Antonin Artaud, French dramatist and director, 1896; Mary Renault, Eng- lish novelist, 1905; Dawn Fraser, Australian swimmer, 1937; Tom Watson, US golfer, 1949. Died Charles Townshend, British politician, 1767; James Wyatt, English architect, 1813; Robert Schuman, French statesman, 1963; Albert Schweitzer, French organist and missionary surgeon, 1965; Georges Simenon, Belgian crime writer, 1989. 5 September Feast day of Saints Urban and Theodore and their Compani- ons, St Laurence Giustiniani, St Bertinus, and St Genebald of Laon. 1774 The first Continental Congress in America opened at Philadelphia. 1800 French troops surrendered Malta to the British, following Nelson's naval blockade. 1914 The first Battle of the Marne, during World War I, began. 1922 US aviator James Doolittle made the first US coast-to-coast flight in 21 hrs, 19 min. 1963 Christine Keeler, one of the women involved in the Profumo scandal, was arrested and charged with perjury. 1972 At the Olympic Games in Munich, terrorists of the Black September group seized Israeli athletes as hostages; nine of the Israelis, four of the terro- rists, and one German policeman were killed. 1980 The world's longest road tunnel, the St Gotthard, was opened running 16km/10mi from Gosche- nen to Airolo, Switzerland. 1988 No Sex Please - We're British, the lon- gest running comedy, closed (after 6,671 performances over 16 years). Born Louis VIII, King of France, 1187; Louis XIV, the 'Sun King' of France, 1638; Giacomo Meyerbeer, German composer, 1791; Victorien Sar- dou, French dramatist, 1831; Arthur Koestler, Hungarian author, 1905; Raquel Welch, US actress, 1940; Freddy Mercury, British pop singer, 1946. Died Pieter Breughel the Elder, Flemish painter, 1569; Auguste Comte, French philosopher, 1857; Charles Pйguy, French poet, 1914; Josh White, US blues singer, 1969; Douglas Bader, British fighter pilot, 1962. 6 September Feast day of St Eleutherius of Spoleto, St Cagnoald or Cha- inoaldus, and Saints Donatian, Laetus, and Others. 1522 Ferdinand Magel- lan's 17 surviving crew members reached the Spanish coast aboard the Vittoria, having completed the first circumnavigation of the world. 1852 Britain's first free lending library opened in Manchester. 1880 The first cricket test match in England was played between England and Aust- ralia at the Oval, London, UK. 1901 US President William McKinley was shot and fatally wounded by an anarchist. 1941 Nazi Germany made the we- aring of the yellow Star of David badges compulsory for all its Jewish citizens. 1965 India invaded West Pakistan. 1975 A massive earthquake centered on Lice, Turkey, caused nearly 3,000 deaths. 1989 Due to a com- puter error, 41,000 Parisians received letters charging them with mur- der, extortion, and organized prostitution instead of traffic violati- ons. Born Marquis de Lafayette, French soldier and statesman, 1757; John Dalton, British chemist, 1766; Jane Addams, US sociologist, 1860; Edward Appleton, British physicist, 1892; Britt Ekland, Swedish film actress, 1943; Roger Waters, English bassist, 1947. Died Suleiman I, sultan of Turkey, 1566; Jean-Baptiste Colbert, French politician, 1683; Gertrude Lawrence, English actress and singer, 1952; Hendrik Verwoerd, South Af- rican prime minister, assassinated, 1966. 7 September National Day of Brazil. Feast day of St Anastasius the Ful- ler, St Cloud or Clodoald, Saints Alcmund and Tilbert, St Grimonia, St Regina or Reine of Alize, St Sozon, and St John of Nicomedia. 1812 The Russians were defeated by Napoleon's forces at the Battle of Borodino, 70 mi west of Moscow. 1838 British heroine Grace Darling and her father rescued the crew of the Forfarshire, a steamer wrecked off the Northum- berland coast; she subsequently became a national heroine. 1901 The Pea- ce of Peking was signed, ending the Boxer Rising in China. 1904 Francis Younghusband led a British expedition to Tibet, where a treaty was sig- ned with the Dalai Lama. 1973 Jackie Stewart became world champion ra- cing driver for the third consecutive year. 1986 Bishop Desmond Tutu was appointed Archbishop of Capetown, the first black head of South African Anglicans. 1991 Peace talks on the Yugoslav civil war opened in The Ha- gue, the Netherlands, under EC sponsorship. Born Queen Elizabeth I, 1533; John McDougall Stuart, Australian explorer, 1815; Elia Kazan, US stage and film director, 1909; Anthony Quayle, English actor, 1913; Pe- ter Lawford, English actor, 1923; Sonny Rollins, US saxophonist, 1929; Buddy Holly, US rock singer, 1936. Died Catherine Parr, 6th wife of Hen- ry VIII, 1548; Armand Sully-Prudhomme, French poet, 1907; William Hunt, British painter, 1910; Keith Moon, English rock drummer, 1978; Christy Brown, Irish novelist, 1981; Liam O'Flaherty, Irish novelist, 1984. 8 September Feast Day of St Corbinian, St Disibod, St Eusebius, Saints Adrian and Natalia, St Kingsmark or Cynfarch Oer, St Sergius I, pope, St Zeno, St Nestabus, and St Nestor. 1664 The Dutch colony of New Amsterdam was surrendered to the British who renamed it New York in 1669. 1831 William IV was crowned King of Great Britain. 1886 Johannesburg, South Africa, was founded after the discovery of gold there. 1888 The first English Football league matches were played. 1900 Parts of Texas, US, were hit by a tornado and tidal waves, which caused over 6,000 deaths near Galveston. 1926 Germany was admitted to the League of Nations. 1944 The first German V2 flying bombs fell on Britain. 1951 The Treaty of Pe- ace with Japan was signed by 49 nations in San Francisco. 1966 The Se- vern Road Bridge was officially opened. 1974 US President Ford fully pardoned Richard Nixon for his part in the Watergate affair. Born King Richard I (the Lion Heart), 1157; Ludovico Ariosto, Italian poet, 1474; Antonin Dvorбk, Czech composer, 1841; Siegfried Sassoon, English writer, 1863; Jean-Louis Barrault, French actor and director, 1910; Peter Sel- lers, English actor and comedian, 1925; Frankie Avalon, US singer, 1940. Died Francisco Gomez de Quevedo y Villegas, Spanish writer, 1645; George Bradshaw, British publisher of the first railroad guides, 1853; Richard Strauss, German composer, 1949; Andrй Derain, French painter, 1954; Jean Seberg, US actress, 1979. 9 September Feast day of St Omer or Audomaurus, St Peter Claver, St Ci- aran or Kieran of Clonmacnois, St Bettelin, St Joseph of Volokolamsk, St Gorgonius, and St Isaac or Sahak the Great. 1513 The Scots were defeated by the English at the Battle of Flodden Field. 1835 Local government in Britain was constituted under the British Municipal Corporations Act. 1850 California became the 31st state of the Union. 1943 Allied forces landed at Salerno, Italy. 1945 Palestinians attempted to hijack an El Al flight but were overpowered by security guards. The Israelis reluctantly handed over the failed hijackers at Heathrow, where the plane made its landing. 1971 Geoffrey Jackson, who had been kidnapped by the Tupamaros in Uruguay eight months previously, was released. 1975 Czech tennis pla- yer Martina Navratilova, aged 18, defected to the West, requesting poli- tical asylum in the US. 1985 Massive earthquakes in Mexico left more than 4,700 dead and 30,000 injured. Born Cardinal Richelieu, French sta- tesman, 1585; Luigi Galvani, Italian physiologist, 1737; Leo Tolstoy, Russian novelist, 1828; James Hilton, English novelist, 1900; Otis Red- ding, US singer and songwriter, 1941; John Curry, English figure skating champion, 1949. Died King William I (the Conqueror), 1087; James IV, King of Scotland, 1513; Giambattista Piranesi, Italian architect, 1778; Stйphane Mallarmй, French poet, 1898; Henri Toulouse-Lautrec, French pa- inter, 1901; Mao Zedong, Chinese leader, 1976. 10 September Feast Day of St Theodard of Maestricht, St Salvius or Sal- vy of Albi, St Ambrose Barlow, St Aubert of Avranches, Saints Menodora, Metrodora and Nymphodora, St Finian of Moville, St Nemesian, St Nicholas of Tolentino, and St Pulcheria. 1721 The Peace of Nystad was concluded between Russia and Sweden. 1823 Simуn Bolнvar, known as The Liberator, became the dictator of Peru. 1894 George Smith, a London cab driver, be- came the first person in Britain to be convicted for drunken driving; he was fined 20s (Ј1). 1919 The Treaty of Saint-Germain was signed; the new boundaries it set brought about the end of the Austrian Empire. 1942 In a single raid, the RAF dropped 100,000 bombs on Dusseldorf. 1945 Former Norwegian Premier Vidkun Quisling, who had collaborated with the Germans during World War II, was sentenced to death. 1981 Picasso's Guernica was returned to Spain after 40 years in US custodianship; the artist had re- fused to show the painting in Spain before the restoration of democracy. 1989 Hungary opened its border to the West allowing thousands of East Germans to leave, much to the anger of the East German government. Born Giovanni Tiepolo, Italian painter, 1727; John Soane, English architect, 1753; Mungo Park, Scottish explorer, 1771; Franz Werfel, Austrian nove- list and poet, 1890; Robert Wise, US film director, 1914; Arnold Palmer, US golfer, 1929; Josй Feliciano, US singer, 1945. Died Louis IV, King of France, 954; Mary Wollstonecraft, British feminist, 1797; Huey Long, US politician, assassinated, 1935; Charles Cruft, British dog expert, 1938; Balthazar Johannes Vorster, South African Nationalist politician, 1983. 11 September Feast day of St Theodora of Alexandria, St Peter of Chava- non, Saints Protus and Hyacinth, St Deiniol, St Patiens of Lyon, and St Paphnutius. 1709 The Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene of Austria defeated the French, under Marshal Villars, at the Battle of Malplaquet. 1777 American troops led by George Washington were defeated by the Bri- tish at the Battle of Brandywine Creek, in the Revolutionary War. 1841 In Britain, the London to Brighton commuter express train began regular service, taking just 105 minutes. 1855 In the Crimean War, Sebastopol was taken by the Allies after capitulation by the Russians. 1922 A Bri- tish mandate was declared in Palestine. 1951 Stravinsky's The Rake's Progress was performed for the first time, in Venice; the libretto was by W H Auden. 1973 A military junta, with US support, overthrew the elected government of Chile. 1978 Georgi Markov, a Bulgarian defector, was fatally stabbed by a poisoned umbrella point wielded by a Bulgarian secret agent in London, UK. Born Pierre de Ronsard, French poet, 1524; James Thomson, Scottish poet, 1700; O Henry, US short story writer, 1862; James Hopwood Jeans, British mathematician and scientist, 1877; D H Lawrence, English writer, 1885; Barry Sheene, British racing motorcyc- list, 1950. Died Giovanni Domenico Cassini, Italian-French astronomer, 1712; David Thomas Graham, Scottish chemist, 1869; Jan Christian Smuts, South African statesman, 1950; Nikita Khrushchev, Russian leader, 1971; Salvador Allende Gossens, Chilean politician, 1973; Peter Tosh, Jamaican reggae star, 1987. 12 September Feast day of St Guy of Anderlecht, St Ailbhe, and St Eans- wida. 1609 Henry Hudson sailed the sloop Half Moon into New York Harbor and up to Albany to discover the river named for him. 1878 Cleopatra's Needle, the obelisk of Thothmes II, was erected on London's Embankment. 1910 Alice Stebbins Wells, a former social worker, became the world's first policewoman, appointed by the Los Angeles Police Department. 1914 The Allies were victorious at the First Battle of Marne, in World War I. 1919 Italian writer and nationalist Gabriele D'Annunzio led an unoffici- al army and seized Fiume from Yugoslavia. 1940 The Lascaux Caves, Fran- ce, containing prehistoric wall paintings, were discovered. 1943 Benito Mussolini, imprisoned by the Allies, was rescued by German parachutists. 1974 A military coup deposed Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia, the Li- on of Judah. Born Richard Jordan Gatling, US inventor, 1818; Herbert Henry Asquith, British statesman, 1852; Maurice Chevalier, French actor and entertainer, 1888; Louis MacNeice, British poet, 1907; John Cleve- land 'Jesse' Owens, US athlete, 1913; Wesley Hall, West Indies cricketer and politician, 1937. Died Franзois Couperin, French composer, 1733; Je- an-Philippe Rameau, French composer, 1764; Gebhard Leberecht von Blьcher, Prussian general and field-marshal, 1819; Peter Mark Roget, English lexicographer, 1869; Steve Biko, South African civil rights lea- der, 1977; Anthony Perkins, US actor, 1992. 13 September Feast day of St John Chrysostom, St Maurilius of Angers, St Amatus or Amй, abbot, and St Eulogius of Alexandria. 1759 The British defeated the French at the Battle of Quebec, completing the British con- quest of North America. 1788 New York became the capital of the US (un- til 1789). 1845 The Knickerbocker Club, the first baseball club, was fo- unded in New York. 1914 The first Battle of the Aisne, during World War I, began. 1942 The Germans began their attack on Stalingrad. 1943 Gene- ral Chiang Kai-shek was re-elected president of the Republic of China. 1956 Little Richard recorded 'Tutti Frutti' in Los Angeles with clea- ned-up lyrics. 1957 The Mousetrap became Britain's longest running play, reaching its 1,998th performance. 1989 Britain's biggest ever banking computer error gave customers an extra Ј2 billion in a period of 30 mi- nutes; 99.3 per cent of the money was reportedly returned. Born William Betty, British boy actor, 1791; Arnold Schoenberg, Austrian composer, 1874; John Joseph Priestley, English author, 1894; Claudette Colbert, French actress, 1905; John Smith, British politician, 1938; Jacqueline Bisset, English actress, 1944. Died Andrea Mantegna, Italian painter, 1506; Michel Eyquem de Montaigne, French essayist, 1592; Charles James Fox, English statesman, 1806; Alexis-Emmanuel Chabrier, French composer, 1894; Leopold Stokowski, US conductor, 1977; Joe Pasternak, US film pro- ducer, 1991. 14 September Feast day of St Maternus of Cologne and St Notburga. 1402 The English defeated the Scots at the Battle of Homildon Hill. 1759 A Journey Through Europe, or the play of Geography, the earliest dated English board game, went on sale, priced 8s (40p). 1812 Napoleon entered Moscow in his disastrous invasion of Russia. 1891 The first penalty kick was taken in an English League football game was taken by Heath of Wol- verhampton Wanderers against Accrington. 1901 Theodore Roosevelt became the 26th US president, 12 hours after the death of President McKinley who had been shot by an anarchist on 6 Sept. 1923 Miguel Primo de Rivera became dictator of Spain. 1959 The Soviet Lunik II became the first spa- cecraft to land on the Moon. 1991 The South African government, the ANC, and the Inkatha Freedom Party signed a peace accord aimed at ending the factional violence in the black townships. Born Peter Lely, Dutch pain- ter, 1617; Baron von Humboldt, German traveler and naturalist, 1769; Jan Garrigue Masaryk, Czech statesman, 1886; Peter Scott, British artist and ornithologist, 1909; Jack Hawkins, British film actor, 1910; Kepler Wes- sels, Australian cricketer, 1957. Died Dante Alighieri, Italian poet, 1321; James Fenimore Cooper, US novelist, 1851; Augustus Pugin, English architect, 1852; Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, English sol- dier and politician, 1852; Isadora Duncan, US dancer, 1927; Princess Grace of Monaco (Grace Kelly), 1982. 15 September National Day of Costa Rica. The Battle of Britain day. Fe- ast day of St Nicetus the Goth, St Nicomedes, St Aachard or Aichardus, St Mirin, and St Catherine of Genoa. 1784 The first ascent in a hydrogen balloon in England was made by the Italian aeronaut Vincenzo Lunardi. 1812 The Russians set fire to Moscow in order to halt the French occupa- tion. 1830 The Manchester and Liverpool railroad opened; during the ce- remony, William Huskisson, MP, became the first person to be killed by a train. 1915 Military tanks, designed by Ernest Swinton, were first used by the British Army, at Flers, in the Somme offensive. 1917 Alexander Kerensky proclaimed Russia a republic. 1935 The Nuremburg laws were pas- sed in Germany, outlawing Jews and making the swastika the country's of- ficial flag. 1964 The Sun, which became Britain's biggest selling news- paper, was first published. 1974 The civil war between Christians and Muslims in Beirut began. 1985 Tony Jacklin's European golf team won the Ryder Cup from the US who had long dominated the competition. Born Tra- jan, Roman emperor, 53; Titus Oates, British priest and conspirator, 1649; William Taft, 27th US president, 1857; Agatha Christie, English detective novelist, 1890; Jean Renoir, French film director, 1894; Jes- sye Norman, US soprano 1945; Freddie Mercury, British rock singer, 1946. Died Isambard Kingdom Brunel, British engineer, 1859; John Hanning Spe- ke, British explorer, 1864; Josй Echegaray, Spanish dramatist and scien- tist, 1916; Geoffrey Fisher, former Archbishop of Canterbury, 1972; Gus- tav VI, King of Sweden, 1973; Robert Penn Warren, US novelist, 1989. 16 September National Day of Mexico. Feast day of St Cornelius, pope, St Cyprian, St Ludmila, St Ninian, Saints Abundius and Abundantius, St Edith of Wilton, and St Euphemia. 1847 The house in which Shakespeare was born in Stratford-upon-Avon became the first building in Britain to be purchased for preservation. 1859 David Livingstone discovered Lake Nyasa. 1906 The US Buick and Oldsmobile automobile manufacturers merged to become General Motors. 1941 The Shah of Iran, Reza Khan Pahlavi, ab- dicated. 1963 Malaysia became independent and a mob of over 100,000 bur- ned down the British Embassy. 1969 Biba, considered London's trendiest store in the 'swinging 60s', opened on Kensington High Street. 1976 The Episcopal Church in the US approved the ordination of women to the pri- esthood. 1987 For the first time in South Africa, Othello was performed with a black actor, John Khani, playing the Moor. 1991 All Iran-Contra charges against Oliver North were dropped. Born King Henry V, 1387; Ale- xander Korda, British film director and producer, 1893; Lauren Bacall, US actress, 1924; Charles Haughey, Irish politician, 1925; B B King, US blues singer, 1926; Peter Falk, US actor, 1927; Andy Irvine, British rugby footballer, 1951. Died Tomбs de Torquemada, Spanish Inquisitor-Ge- neral, 1498; Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit, German physicist, 1736; Louis XVIII, King of France, 1824; Leo Amery, British statesman and journa- list, 1955; Walter Greenwood, English novelist, 1974; Maria Callas, US opera singer, 1977. 17 September Feast day of St Francis of Camporosso, St Hildegard, St Columba of Cordova, Saints Socrates and Stephen, St Satyrus of Milan, St Theodora, St Lambert of Maastricht, St Robert Bellarmine, and St Peter Arbues. 1787 The Constitution of the United States of America was sig- ned. 1862 General McClellan repulsed General Lee's invasion of the North at Antietam, ending one of the decisive battles in the American Civil War. 1900 The Commonwealth of Australia, a federation of six colonies, was proclaimed. 1908 Lt Selfridge, on a test flight with Orville Wright, was killed when the plane crashed, becoming the first passenger to die in an air crash. 1931 The first long-playing record was demonstrated in New York by RCA-Victor, but the venture failed because of the high price of the players. 1939 Poland was invaded by the USSR. 1944 The British airborne invasion of Arnhem, Holland began as part of 'Operation Market Garden'. 1991 Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, North and South Korea, the Marshall Islands, and Micronesia were admitted to the United Nations. Born Francisco Gomez de Quevado y Villegas, Spanish poet and satirist, 1580; William Carlos Williams, US poet, 1883; Frederick Ashton, British choreographer, 1906; Stirling Moss, English racing driver, 1929; Anne Bancroft, US actress, 1931; Maureen Connolly, US tennis player, 1934. Died Philip IV, King of Spain, 1665; Tobias George Smollett, Scottish novelist, 1771; William Henry Fox Talbot, English photographic pioneer, 1877; Count Folke Bernadotte, Swedish diplomat, assassinated, 1948; Lau- ra Ashley, Welsh designer and fabric retailer, 1985. 18 September National Day of Chile. Feast day of St John Massias, St Joseph of Cupertino, St Richardis, St Ferreolus of Limoges, St Ferreolus of Vienne, and St Methodius of Olympus. 1851 The New York Times was first published. 1879 Blackpool's famous illuminations were switched on for the first time. 1910 The Chilean revolt against Spanish rule began. 1914 The Irish Home Rule Bill went into effect. 1918 The Battle of Me- giddo, in Palestine, began. 1927 CBS, the Columbia Broadcasting System, was inaugurated in the US. 1931 Japan seized Manchuria and set up a pup- pet state called Manchukuo - it was returned to China in 1945 after World War II. 1934 The USSR was admitted to the League of Nations. 1939 William Joyce, whose upper-class accent earned him the nickname Lord Haw-Haw, made his first Nazi propaganda broadcast from Germany to the UK. 1981 France abolished execution by guillotine. 1991 The Yugoslav na- vy began a blockade of seven port cities on the Adriatic coast in Dalma- tia. Born Dr Samuel Johnson, English writer and lexicographer, 1709; Je- an Bernard Lйon Foucault, French physicist, 1819; Greta Garbo, Swedish film actress, 1905; Jack Cardiff, British film director, 1914; Frankie Avalon, US singer and actor, 1939; Peter Shilton, English footballer, 1949. Died Leonhard Euler, Swiss mathematician, 1783; William Hazlitt, British essayist and critic, 1830; Dag Hammarskjцld, Swedish UN secreta- ry-general, 1961; Sean O'Casey, Irish dramatist, 1964; John Douglas Cockcroft, English nuclear physicist, 1967; Jimi Hendrix, US rock guita- rist, 1970. 19 September Feast day of St Januarius of Benevento, St Peleus and his Companions, St Emily de Rodat, St Mary of Cerevellon, St Goericus or Ab- bo, St Theodore of Canterbury, St Susanna of Eleutheropolis, and St Se- quanus or Seine. 1356 Led by Edward, the Black Prince, the English defe- ated the French at the Battle of Poitiers in the Hundred Years' War. 1783 The Montgolfier brothers sent up the first balloon with live crea- tures aboard; passengers included a sheep, a rooster, and a duck. 1876 The US inventor Melville Bissell patented the first carpet sweeper. 1893 New Zealand became the first country to grant its female citizens the right to vote. 1945 William Joyce (Lord Haw-Haw) was sentenced to hang for treason. 1960 A new dance craze began when Chubby Checker's 'The Twist' entered the US charts. 1960 The new Traffic Wardens issued the first 344 parking tickets in London, UK. 1989 The New York Supreme Court reversed an earlier decision to award the America's Cup to New Zealand, allowing the San Diego Yacht Club to retain the award. Born Lajos Kos- suth, Hungarian statesman, 1802; George Cadbury, English chocolate manu- facturer and social reformer, 1839; William Golding, English novelist, 1911; Jeremy Irons, English actor, 1948; Rosemary Casals, US tennis pla- yer, 1948; Twiggy (Lesley Hornby), English model and actress, 1949. Died Meyer Amschel Rothschild, German banker, 1812; James Garfield, 20th US president, 1881; Thomas John Barnardo, British philanthropist, 1905; Da- vid Low, British cartoonist, 1963; Chester Carlson, US inventor of the xerography photocopying process, 1968; Roy Kinnear, English comedy ac- tor, 1988. 20 September Feast day of Saints Fausta and Evilasius, St Candida of Carthage, St Vincent Madelgarius, and Saints Theodore, Philippa, and their Companions. 451 The Romans defeated the Huns under Attila at Chѓlon-sur-Marne. 1519 Ferdinand Magellan, with a fleet of five small ships, sailed from Seville on his expedition around the world. 1854 The Russian army was defeated by the Allied armies at the Battle of Alma in the Crimean War; the first six Victoria Crosses to be awarded to the British Army were won at this battle. 1928 The Fascist Party took over the supreme legislative body in Rome, replacing the Chamber of Deputies. 1961 Argentinian Antonio Abertondo started the first successful non-stop swim across the Channel and back, completed in 43 hr 5 min. 1966 The li- ner Queen Elizabeth II (QE2) was launched at Clydebank, Scotland. 1984 The US embassy in Beirut was attacked by a suicide bomber; explosives within a truck were set off, killing 40 people. Born Alexander the Gre- at, 356 BC; Henry Arthur Jones, British dramatist, 1851; Upton Sinclair, US novelist, 1878; Jelly Roll Morton, US pianist and composer, 1885; John Dankworth, English bandleader and jazzman, 1927; Sophia Loren, Ita- lian film actress, 1934. Died Robert Emmet, Irish nationalist, executed, 1803; Jakob Karl Grimm, German philologist, 1863; Annie Besant, British socialist and feminist activist, 1933; Jean Sibelius, Finnish composer, 1957; George Seferis, Greek poet-diplomat, 1971. 21 September National Day of Malta. Feast day of St Theodore of Cherni- gov, The Martyrs of Korea, St Michael of Chernigov, St Matthew, and St Maures of Troyes. 1529 The Turkish army under Suleiman the Magnificent was defeated at Vienna. 1745 Bonnie Prince Charles and his Jacobite army defeated the English at the Battle of Prestonpans in Scotland. 1784 The Pennsylvania Packet and General Advertiser, the first successful US dai- ly newspaper, was published. 1915 Stonehenge was sold at auction to Mr C H Chubb for Ј6,600. Mr Chubb presented it to the nation three years la- ter. 1917 Latvia proclaimed its independence. 1938 The Anglo-French plan to cede Sudetenland to Germany was accepted by the Czech cabinet. 1949 The Republic of Ireland beat England 2-0 at Goodison Park - England's first home defeat by a foreign football team. 1974 Over 8,000 people we- re killed by floods caused by hurricanes in Honduras. 1989 Hurricane Hu- go struck the US coastal states of Georgia and South Carolina, causing widespread damage and loss of life. Born Girolamo Savonarola, Italian political reformer and martyr, 1452; John Loudon McAdam, Scottish engi- neer, 1756; Edmund William Gosse, English author, 1849; H G Wells, Eng- lish writer, 1866; Larry Hagman, US actor, 1931; Stephen King, US nove- list, 1948. Died Virgil, Roman poet, 19 BC; King Edward II, murdered, 1327; Sir Walter Scott, Scottish novelist, 1832; Arthur Schopenhauer, German philosopher, 1860; Haakon VII, King of Norway, 1957; William Plo- mer, South African author, 1973; Walter Brennan, US film actor, 1974. 22 September Feast day of St Felix II, pope, St Landus or Lф, St Bodo, St Emmeramus, St Maurice of Agaunum, St Thomas of Villanova, The Theban Legion, St Phocas the Gardener, and St Salaberga. 1735 Sir Robert Walpo- le became the first prime minister to occupy 10 Downing Street. 1792 France was declared a Republic. 1862 US President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, ordering the freeing of slaves. 1869 Wagner's opera Das Rheingold was first performed in Munich. 1914 Three British cruisers, Aboukir, Hogue, and Cressy, were torpedoed and sunk by German U-boats. 1955 Argentinian leader Juan Perуn was deposed in a military coup. 1955 Independent TV began operating; Britain's first commercial and first woman newsreader were transmitted. 1972 Idi Amin gave the 8,000 Asians in Uganda 48 hours to leave the country. 1980 The Solidari- ty movement in Poland was created, with Lech Walesa as its elected lea- der. 1985 A severe earthquake hit Mexico, killing 2,000 people. 1989 An IRA bomb attack on the Royal Marines School of Music killed ten and in- jured twelve of the bandsmen. Born Anne of Cleves, 4th wife of Henry VI- II, 1515; Michael Faraday, English chemist and physicist, 1791; Christa- bel Pankhurst, English suffragist, 1880; Erich von Stroheim, Austrian actor and film director, 1885; John Houseman, US actor and producer, 1902; Fay Weldon, British author, 1931; Catherine Oxenberg, US film act- ress, 1961. Died Nathan Hale, American revolutionary patriot, hanged, 1776; Axel Springer, German publisher, 1985; Jaco Pastorius, US bass gu- itarist, 1987; Louis Kentner, English pianist, 1987; Irving Berlin, US composer, 1989. 23 September National Day of Saudi Arabia. Feast day of Saints Andrew, John, Peter and Antony, and St Adamnan or Eunan of Iona. 480 BC The Per- sians were defeated by the Greeks at the Battle of Salamis. 1779 In the Revolutionary War, a French and American fleet commanded by John Paul Jones, captured the British ship Serapis in the Battle of Flamborough Head. 1803 The British under Arthur Wellesley (later Duke of Wellington) defeated Scindia and the Rajah of Berar at Assaye in India. 1846 German astronomer Johann Galle discovered the planet Neptune. 1848 Chewing gum was first commercially produced in the US by John Curtis in his home, and was called 'State of Maine Pure Spruce Gum'. 1912 Cohen Collects a Debt, the first of US film producer Mack Sennet's silent Keystone Cops films, was released. 1940 The George Cross and the George Medal for ci- vilian acts of courage were instituted. 1973 Juan Perуn was re-elected President of Argentina; he had been ousted in 1955. 1974 The world's first Ceefax teletext service was begun in Britain by the BBC. Born Au- gustus, 1st Roman Emperor, 63 BC; Ferdinand VI, King of Spain, 1713; Mickey Rooney, US film actor, 1920; John Coltrane, US saxophonist, 1926; Ray Charles, US singer, 1930; Julio Iglesias, Spanish singer, 1943; Bru- ce Springsteen, US rock singer, 1949; Jeff Squire, rugby footballer, 1951. Died Nicholas Franзois Mansart, French architect, 1666; Prosper Merimйe, French novelist, 1870; Wilkie Collins, English novelist, 1889; Sigmund Freud, Austrian psychoanalyst, 1939; Pablo Neruda, Chilean poet, 1973; Bob Fosse, US director, 1987. 24 September Feast day of St Pacifico of San Severino, St Robert Flower of Knaresborough, St Geremarus or Germer, and St Gerard of Csanad. 1776 The St Leger horse race was run for the first time at Doncaster. 1852 French engineer Henri Giffaud made the first flight in a dirigible bal- loon, from Paris to Trappe. 1930 Noel Coward's Private Lives was first staged in London, UK. 1953 The Robe, the first Cinemascope film, premie- red in Hollywood. 1960 The first nuclear-powered aircraft carrier, the USS Enterprise, was launched at Newport, Virginia. 1975 British mountai- neers Dougal Haston and Doug Scott became the first to reach Mt Eve- rest's summit via the south-west face. 1980 The Iraqis blew up the Aba- dan oil refinery, turning the Iran-Iraq conflict into a full scale war. 1991 The Shiite Muslim Revolutionary Justice Organization freed British hostage Jack Mann, kidnapped in May 1989. Born Geronimo Cardano, Italian physician and mathematician, 1501; Horace Walpole, 4th Earl of Orford, English writer, 1717; F Scott Fitzgerald, US novelist, 1896; Howard Wal- ter Florey, pathologist, 1898; Svetlana Beriosova, British ballerina, 1932; Gerry Marsden, English rock musician, 1942. Died Pйpin III (the Short), King of the Franks, 768; Pope Innocent II, 1143; Paracelsus, Swiss physician, alchemist, and scientist, 1541; Isobel Baillie, Scot- tish oratorio singer, 1983. 25 September Feast day of St Sergius of Radonezh, St Vincent Strambi, St Aunacharius or Aunaire, St Albert of Jerusalem, St Firminus of Ami- ens, St Ceolfirth, St Fibar or Bairre. 1066 King Harold II defeated the King of Norway, Harald Hardrada, at the Battle of Stamford Bridge. 1513 Vasco Balboa, Spanish explorer, became the first European to sight the Pacific Ocean after crossing the Darien isthmus. 1818 The first blood transfusion using human blood, as opposed to earlier attempts with ani- mal blood, took place at Guy's Hospital in London, UK. 1888 London's Ro- yal Court Theatre, in Sloane Square, opened. 1909 The French battleship Libertй exploded in Toulon Harbor, killing 226 people. 1915 The Battle of Loos, in World War I, began; it would continue into Oct. 1954 Franзo- is Duvalier ('Papa' Doc) was elected president of Haiti. 1957 The Natio- nal Guard was sent in to enforce desegregation in Little Rock, Alabama, US. 1972 Norway voted against joining the EC in a referendum. Born Jean Philippe Rameau, French composer, 1683; William Faulkner, US novelist, 1897; Mark Rothko, US painter, 1903; Dmitri Shostakovich, Russian compo- ser, 1906; Colin Davis, British conductor, 1927; Michael Douglas, US ac- tor, 1944; Christopher Reeve, US film actor, 1952. Died Samuel Butler, English writer, 1680; Johann Strauss the Elder, Austrian composer, 1849; Emily Post, US writer, 1960; Erich Maria Remarque, German novelist, 1970; Walter Pidgeon, US film actor, 1984. 26 September Feast day of Saints Cosmas and Damian, St Nilus of Rossa- no, St Colman of Lann Elo, St Teresa Couderc, and St John of Meda. 1687 The Parthenon in Athens was severely damaged by mortar bombs fired by the Venetian army as it besieged the Turkish-held Acropolis. 1887 Ger- man-born US Emile Berliner patented the first phonograph. 1907 New Zea- land became a Dominion. 1934 The liner Queen Mary was launched at Clyde- bank, Scotland, by Queen Mary. 1953 Sugar rationing in Britain came to an end. 1955 Frozen Birds Eye fish fingers first went on sale in Brita- in. 1961 Bob Dylan made his debut in New York's Greenwich Village, at Gerdie's Folk City. 1983 Alan Bond's Australia II won the America's Cup, the first non-US winner for 132 years. 1984 Britain agreed to transfer full sovereignty of Hong Kong to China in 1997. 1988 Canadian sprinter Ben Johnson was stripped of his gold medal in the 100 meters at the Se- oul Olympics after failing a drugs test. Born Thйodore Gйricault, French painter, 1791; Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, Russian physiologist, 1849; T S Eliot, US-born British poet and playwright, 1888; George Gershwin, US composer, 1898; Ian Chappell, Australian cricketer 1943; Bryan Ferry, English rock singer, 1945; Olivia Newton-John English singer, 1948. Died Daniel Boone, US frontiersman, 1820; James Keir Hardie, Scottish Labour Party pioneer, 1915; Bйla Bartуk, Hungarian composer, 1945; Alberto Mo- ravia, Italian writer, 1990. 27 September Feast day of St Elzear of Sabran, St Barrog or Barnoch, and St Vincent de Paul. 1821 Mexico achieved independence through the efforts of General Hubride, who declared himself Emperor Augustin I. 1826 The Stockton and Darlington Railway, the first passenger rail ser- vice, opened, with its first steam locomotive traveling at 10 mph. 1922 Constantine I, King of Greece, abdicated following the Greek defeat in Turkey. 1938 The 80,000-ton liner Queen Elizabeth was launched by the Queen Mother. 1939 Warsaw, the capital of Poland, surrendered to the German forces. 1968 The musical Hair, which took advantage of the end of British stage censorship by including a scene cast in the nude, had its first London performance. Born Samuel Adams, US revolutionary leader, 1722; George Cruikshank, English caricaturist and illustrator, 1792; Lo- uis Botha, South African politician, 1862; Vincent Youmans, US composer, 1898; Alvin Stardust, rock singer, 1942; Michele Dotrice, English act- ress, 1948. Died Ivan Alexandrovich Goncharov, Russian novelist, 1891; Edgar Degas, French painter, 1917; Engelbert Humperdinck, German compo- ser, 1921; Aristide Maillol, French painter and sculptor, 1944; Clara Bow, US film actress, 1965; Gracie Fields, English singer and comedian, 1979. 28 September Feast day of St Eustochium of Bethlehem, St Annemund or Chamond, St Faustus of Riez, St Ferreolus of Vienne, St Lioba, St Wen- ceslaus of Bohemia, and St Exuperius or Soupire of Toulouse. 490 BC The Greeks defeated the Persians at the Battle of Marathon. 1745 At the Dru- ry Lane Theatre, London, God Save the King, the national anthem, was sung for the first time. 1794 Britain, Russia, and Austria formed the Alliance of St Petersburg against France. 1864 The First International was founded in London, when Karl Marx proposed the formation of an In- ternational Working Men's Association. 1865 Elizabeth Garrett Anderson became the first qualified woman physician in Britain. 1894 Simon Marks and Tom Spencer opened their Penny Bazaar in Manchester, the first of what would become a nation-wide chain of stores. 1978 Pope John Paul I, pope for only 33 days, was found dead. Born Caravaggio, Italian painter, 1573; Prosper Merimйe, French writer, 1803; Georges Clemenceau, French politician, 1841; Peter Finch, British film actor, 1916; Michael Soames, English dancer, 1917; Marcello Mastroianni, Italian actor, 1924; Brigit- te Bardot, French film actress, 1934. Died Andrea del Sarto, Italian pa- inter, 1530; Herman Melville, US novelist, 1891; Louis Pasteur, French chemist, 1895; Emile Zola, French novelist, 1902; W H Auden, English po- et, 1973; William Douglas-Home, British playwright, 1992. 29 September Feast day of Saints Rhipsime, Gaiana and Companions, St Theodota of Philippolis, and St Michael, St Raphael, and St Gabriel, archangels. 1399 The first monarch to abdicate, Richard II, was replaced by Bolingbroke who ascended the throne as Henry IV. 1829 The first regu- lar police force in London was inaugurated; the officers became known as 'bobbies' after Robert Peel, the Home Secretary who founded the modern police force. 1911 Italy declared war on Turkey over possession of Tri- poli, in Libya. 1916 John D Rockefeller became the world's first billio- naire during the share boom in the US. 1938 The Munich Agreement between Germany and France, Italy and Britain was signed. 1944 Soviet troops en- tered Yugoslavia. 1950 The first automatic telephone answering machine was tested by the US Bell Telephone Company. 1991 Haiti's first freely elected president, Jean-Bertrand Aristide, was ousted in a military co- up. Born Miguel de Cervantes, Spanish playwright and novelist, 1547; Ho- ratio Nelson, Viscount, English admiral, 1758; Enrico Fermi, US physi- cist, 1901; Jerry Lee Lewis, US singer and pianist, 1935; Lech Walesa, Polish leader, 1943; Sebastian Coe, English athlete, 1956. Died Winslow Homer, US painter, 1910; Rudolf Diesel, German engineer, 1913; Willem Einthoven, Dutch physiologist, 1927; Winifred Holtby, English novelist, 1935; Bruce Bairnsfather, British cartoonist, 1959; Carson McCullers, US author, 1967. 30 September National Day of Botswana. Feast day of St Jerome, St Simon of Crйpy, St Gregory the Enlightener, and St Honorius of Canterbury. 1791 The first performance of Mozart's Magic Flute took place in Vienna. 1888 Jack the Ripper murdered two more women - Liz Stride, found behind 40 Berner Street, and Kate Eddowes in Mitre Square, both in London's East End. 1902 Rayon, or artificial silk, was patented. 1928 Alexander Fleming announced his discovery of penicillin. 1935 George Gershwin's opera Porgy and Bess was first performed in Boston. 1939 The USSR and Germany agreed on the partition of Poland. 1952 Cinerama, invented by Fred Waller, was first exhibited in New York. 1987 Keith Best, MP, was sentenced to four months in prison for trying to obtain British Telecom shares by deception. Born Lord Raglan, British field-marshal, 1788; Da- vid Fyodorovich Oistrakh, Russian violinist, 1908; Deborah Kerr, British actress, 1923; Truman Capote, US author, 1924; Angie Dickinson, US act- ress, 1931; Johnny Mathis, US singer, 1937. Died James Brindley, British canal engineer, 1772; Richard Austin Freeman, British crime writer, 1943; James Dean, US film actor, 1955; Simone Signoret, French film act- ress, 1985; Virgil Thomson, US composer, 1989. 1 October National Day of China, Nigeria, and Cyprus. Feast day of St Romanus the Melodist, St Melorus or Mylor, St Bavo or Allowin, St Thйrиse of Lisieux. 331 BC Alexander the Great defeated Darius III at Arbela. 1795 Belgium became part of the French Republic. 1843 The News of the World, Britain's most popular Sunday newspaper, was first publis- hed. 1908 The first Model T, produced in Detroit, Michigan, was introdu- ced by Henry Ford. 1918 The Arab forces of Emir Faisal, with British of- ficer T E Lawrence, captured Damascus from the Turks. 1936 General Fran- cisco Franco took office as Head of Spain's Nationalist Government. 1938 German forces entered Sudetenland, Czechoslovakia, annexed by Hitler un- der the Munich Agreement. 1949 The People's Republic of China was proc- laimed, with Mao Zedong as its chairman. 1971 Disney World, the world's largest amusement resort, was opened in Florida. 1982 Helmut Kohl became federal chancellor of West Germany, succeeding Helmut Schmidt. Born King Henry III, 1207; Paul Dukas, French composer, 1865; Vladimir Horowitz, US pianist, 1904; Walter Matthau, US film actor, 1920; Jimmy Carter, 39th US president, 1924; Richard Harris, British actor, 1933; Julie And- rews, English actress and singer, 1935. Died Pierre Corneille, French dramatist, 1684; John Blow, British composer, 1708; Edwin Landseer, Eng- lish painter, 1873; Wilhelm Dilthey, German philosopher, 1911; Louis Se- ymour Bazett Leakey, English anthropologist, 1972; Roy Harris US compo- ser, 1979. 2 October Feast day of The Guardian Angels, St Leger or Leodegarius, and St Eleutherius of Nicomedia. 1187 Saladin, the Muslim sultan, captu- red Jerusalem after its 88-year occupation by the Franks. 1608 The first telescope was demonstrated by the Dutch lens maker, Hans Lipperschey. 1836 Charles Darwin returned from his five-year survey of South American waters aboard the HMS Beagle. 1870 Rome became the capital of the newly unified Italy. 1901 The British Royal Navy's first submarine, built by Vickers, was launched at Barrow. 1909 The first rugby football match was played at Twickenham, between Harlequins and Richmond. 1942 The British cruiser Curacao sank with the loss of 338 lives, after colliding with the liner Queen Mary off the coast of Donegal. 1983 Neil Kinnock was elected leader of Britain's Labour Party. 1993 CIS President Boris Yelt- sin declared a State of Emergency in Moscow as pro-parliamentary rebels seized the White House. Born Mikhail Yurevich Lermontov, Russian poet, 1814; Paul von Hindenburg, German field marshal and politician, 1847; William Ramsay, Scottish chemist, 1852; Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, In- dian leader, 1869; Graham Greene, English novelist, 1904; Sting, English rock singer, 1951. Died Samuel Adams, US statesman, 1803; Max Bruch, German composer, 1920; Marie Stopes, Scottish birth-control campaigner, 1958; Marcel Duchamp, French painter, 1968; Rock Hudson, US film actor, 1985; Peter Medawar, British immunologist, 1987. 3 October Feast day of St Hesychius, St Thomas Cantelupe of Hereford, St Attilanus, St Gerard of Brogne, St Froilan, St Ewald the Fair, and St Ewald the Dark. 1811 The first women's county cricket match began at Ne- wington, between Hampshire and Surrey. 1888 Gilbert and Sullivan's Yeo- men of the Guard was performed for the first time, at London's Savoy Theatre. 1906 SOS was established as an international distress signal, replacing the call sign CQD. 1929 The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slo- venes was renamed Yugoslavia. 1952 The first British atomic bomb was de- tonated on the Monte Bello Islands, off W Australia. 1956 The Bolshoi Ballet performed in Britain, at Covent Garden, for the first time. 1972 US President Nixon signed SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty) limi- ting US and USSR to 200 defensive antiballistic missiles to be installed at two sites. B{1990 East and West Germany were officially reunified, with Berlin as the capital. Born Pierre Bonnard, French painter, 1867; Louis Aragon, French poet, 1897; Michael Hordern, English actor, 1911; James Herriot, Scottish author, 1916; Gore Vidal, US author, 1925; Chub- by Checker, US rock singer, 1941. Died St Francis, Italian founder of the Franciscan order, 1226; William Morris, English designer, socialist, and poet, 1896; Woody Guthrie, US singer and composer, 1967; Malcolm Sargent, British conductor, 1967; Jean Anouilh, French dramatist, 1987. 4 October National Day of Lesotho. Feast day of St Petronius of Bolog- na, St Francis of Assisi, and St Ammon. The first Chinese Embassy in Washington, DC was opened. 1905 Orville Wright became the first to fly an aircraft for over 33 minutes. 1910 Portugal was proclaimed a republic when King Manuel II was driven from the country by a revolution. 1911 Britain's first public escalator was switched on, at London's Earl's Co- urt underground station. 1957 The USSR's Sputnik I, the first space sa- tellite, was launched. 1958 BOAC (now British Airways) began operating the first transatlantic passenger jet service. 1965 Pope Paul VI visited New York to address the UN, becoming the first pope to visit the US. 1983 A world record speed of 663.5 mph was achieved by Richard Noble in his jet-powered automobile Thrust II, in Nevada. 1993 In Moscow, the le- aders of the pro-parliamentary rebels, among them Alexander Rutskoi and Ruslan Khusbulatov, surrendered to government forces. Born Giambattista Piranesi, Italian architect, 1720; Jean Franзois Millet, French painter, 1814; Engelbert Dollfuss, Austrian statesman, 1892; Buster Keaton, US comedian, 1892; Charlton Heston, US film actor, 1924; Terence Conran, British designer, 1931. Died Benozzo Gozzoli, Italian painter, 1497; Rembrandt, Dutch painter, 1669; John Rennie, Scottish civil engineer, 1821; Arthur Whitten Brown, pioneer aviator, 1948; Janis Joplin, US sin- ger, 1970. 5 October Feast day of St Flora of Beaulieu, St Maurus, St Magenulf or Meinulf, St Apollinaris of Valence, and St Galla. 1796 Spain declared war on Britain, during the Revolutionary Wars. 1880 The earliest 'ball pen', with its own ink supply and retractable tip, was patented by Alon- zo T Cross. 1908 Bulgaria declared its independence from Turkey. 1911 Italian troops occupied Tripoli, in Libya, during its war with Turkey. 1914 The first air battle took place between French and German aircraft during World War I; both sides suffered losses. 1930 The British airship R101, the world's largest dirigible at that time, crashed in France en route to India; the British air minister was among the 48 killed. 1936 The Jarrow march, of unemployed shipyard workers, started its southward journey to London, UK. 1967 The first majority verdict by a jury in Bri- tain was taken, in Brighton. 1970 Anwar Sadat succeeded Gamal Nasser as president of Egypt. Born Denis Diderot, French philosopher, 1713; Ches- ter Alan Arthur, 21st US president, 1830; Donald Pleasence, English ac- tor, 1919; Glynis Johns, British actress, 1923; Vaclav Havel, Czech dra- matist and president, 1936; Bob Geldof, Irish musician, 1954. Died Phi- lip III ('the Bold'), King of France, 1285; Joachim Patinir, Dutch pain- ter, 1524; Jacques Offenbach, French composer, 1880; Jean Vigo, French film director, 1934; Nelson Riddle, US composer and arranger, 1985. 6 October Feast day of St Mary Frances of Naples, St Faith of Agen, St Nicetas of Constantinople, and St Bruno. 1769 English naval explorer Captain James Cook, aboard the Endeavour, landed in New Zealand. 1883 The Orient Express completed its first run from Paris to Constantinople (now Istanbul) in nearly 78 hours. 1908 Austria annexed Bosnia and Her- zegovina. 1927 Warner Brothers' The Jazz Singer, the first talking fea- ture film (starring Al Jolson), premiered in New York. 1928 Nationalist General Chiang Kai-shek became president of China. 1968 The first three places in the US Grand Prix were taken by British drivers: Jackie Ste- wart, Graham Hill, and John Surtees. 1978 London Underground's first wo- man driver started work. 1981 One day after the 11th anniversary of his election to office, Egyptian President Anwar Sadat was assassinated by Muslim extremists. Born Nevil Maskelyne, Astronomer Royal, 1732; Le Cor- busier, Swiss architect, 1887; Janet Gaynor, US film actress, 1906; Thor Heyerdahl, Norwegian ethnologist, 1914; Richie Benaud, Australian cric- keter and commentator, 1930; Melvyn Bragg, English writer and TV presen- ter, 1939. Died William Tyndale, English Bible translator, 1536; William Henry Smith, English newsagent, bookseller and statesman, 1891; Alfred Tennyson, English poet, 1892; George du Maurier, English novelist, 1896; Denholm Elliott, English actor, 1992; Cyril Cusack, Irish actor, 1993. 7 October Feast day of St Justina of Padua, St Mark, pope, St Artaldus or Arthaud, and St Osyth. 1571 The Battle of Lepanto, between Christian allied naval forces and the Ottoman Turks attempting to capture Cyprus from the Venetians, took place. 1806 The first carbon paper was patented by its English inventor, Ralph Wedgwood. 1919 The Dutch airline KLM, the oldest existing airline, was established. 1949 The German Democratic Re- public, or East Germany, was formed. 1958 The first photograph of the far side of the Moon was transmitted from the USSR's Lunik I. 1985 The Italian liner Achille Lauro was seized by Palestinian terrorists; they surrendered two days later, having killed one US passenger. 1988 Grey whales trapped under ice in Alaska became the focus of an international rescue effort. Born William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury, 1573; Niels Bohr, Danish physicist, 1885; Desmond Tutu, Archbishop of Cape Town, 1931; Clive James, Australian critic and TV presenter, 1939; Yo Yo Ma, Chinese cellist, 1955; Jane Torvill, English ice skater, 1957. Died Ed- gar Allan Poe, US novelist and poet, 1849; Oliver Wendell Holmes, US writer, 1894; Marie Lloyd, English music hall comedienne, 1922; Radclyf- fe Hall, English author, 1943; Clarence Birdseye, US deep-freezing in- ventor, 1967; Bette Davis, US actress, 1989; Agnes de Mille, US choreog- rapher, 1993. 8 October Feast day of St Simeon Senex, St Pelagia (or Margaret) the Penitent, St Demetrius, St Keyne, St Thaпs, St Marcellus, and St Repara- ta of Caesarea. 1085 St Mark's Cathedral in Venice was consecrated. 1871 The Great Fire of Chicago started. It burned until the 11th, killing over 250 people and making 95,000 homeless. 1905 A permanent waving mac- hine was first used on a woman's hair, by Charles Nessler. 1915 The Battle of Loos, in World War I, ended. 1939 Western Poland was incorpo- rated in the Third Reich. 1965 London's Post Office Tower, Britain's tallest building, opened. 1967 A breathalyzer was used on a motorist for the first time, in Somerset. 1973 LBC (London Broadcasting), Britain's first legal commercial radio station, began transmitting. Born John Cow- per Powys, English novelist, 1872; Alfred Munnings, British painter, 1878; Juan Perуn, Argentine dictator, 1895; Betty Boothroyd, British MP, the Speaker,1929; Merle Park, British ballerina, 1937; Jesse Jackson, US politician, 1941. Died Jan Massys, Flemish painter, 1575; Henry Fiel- ding, English novelist, 1754; Franklin Pierce, 14th US president, 1869; Kathleen Ferrier, English contralto, 1953; Clement Attlee, British sta- tesman, 1967; Willy Brandt, former German federal chancellor, 1992. 9 October National Day of Uganda. Feast Day of St Demetrius of Alexand- ria, Saints Eleutherius and Rusticus, Saints Andronicus and Athanasia, St Denis or Dionysius of Paris, St Dionysius the Aeropagite, St Savin, St Publia, St Louis Bertrбn, and St Ghislain or Gislenus. 1470 Henry VI was restored to the throne after being deposed in 1461. 1779 The first Luddite riots, against the introduction of machinery for spinning cot- ton, began in Manchester. 1875 The Universal Postal Union was establis- hed, with headquarters in Berne, Switzerland. 1888 The massive marble Washington Monument, designed by Robert Mills, was opened. 1934 Alexan- der, King of Yugoslavia, and French Foreign Minister Louis Barthou were assassinated by Croatian terrorists in Marseilles. 1967 Ernesto 'Che' Guevara, Argentinian-born guerilla leader and revolutionary, was murde- red in Bolivia. Born Camille Saint-Saлns, French composer, 1835; Alasta- ir Sim, British actor, 1900; Jacques Tati, French film director, 1908; Don McCullin, British war photographer, 1935; John Lennon, rock singer and songwriter, 1940; Steve Ovett, English athlete, 1955. Died Gabriel Fallopius, Italian anatomist, 1562; Pope Pius XII, 1958; Andrй Maurois, French writer, 1967; Clare Booth Luce, US writer and politician, 1987; Jackie Millburn, English footballer, 1988. 10 October Feast day of St Francis Borgia, St Daniel, St Cerbonius, Sa- ints Eulampius and Eulampia, St Paulinus of York, St Maharsapor, and St Gereon. 732 The Franks, under Charles Martel, defeated the Saracens at the Battle of Tours. 1886 The dinner jacket was first worn in New York by its creator at the Tuxedo Park Country Club, after which it was na- med. 1903 Mrs Emmeline Pankhurst formed the Women's Social and Political Union to fight for women's emancipation in Britain. 1911 China's Imperi- al Dynasty was forced to abdicate, and a republic was proclaimed, under Sun Yat-Sen. 1935 George Gershwin's Porgy and Bess opened in New York City. 1961 Following a volcanic eruption, the entire population of the South Atlantic island of Tristan da Cunha was evacuated to Britain. 1973 US Vice President Spiro Agnew resigned after being fined US $10,000 for income tax evasion. Born Jean Antoine Watteau, French painter, 1684; Henry Cavendish, English physicist, 1731; Giuseppe Verdi, Italian compo- ser, 1813; Thelonious Monk, US jazz pianist and composer, 1918; Harold Pinter, British dramatist, 1930; Charles Dance, British actor, 1946. Di- ed Fra Filippo Lippi, Italian painter, 1469; Edith Piaf, French singer, 1963; Eddie Cantor, US actor and entertainer, 1964; Ralph Richardson, English actor, 1983; Orson Welles, US actor and producer, 1985; Yul Brynner, US film actor, 1985. 11 October Feast day of St Mary Soledad, Saints Andronicus, Tarachus, and Probus, St Agilbert, St Alexander Sauli, St Nectarius of Constanti- nople, St Bruno the Great of Cologne, St Gummarus or Gomaire, and St Ca- nice or Kenneth. 1521 Pope Leo X conferred the title of 'Defender of the Faith' (Fidei Difensor) on Henry VIII for his book supporting Catholic principles. 1689 Peter the Great, Tsar of Russia, assumed control of the government. 1899 The Anglo-Boer War began. 1923 Rampant inflation in Germany caused the mark to drop to an exchange rate of 10,000,000,000 to the pound. 1968 The US spacecraft Apollo 7 was launched from Cape Kenne- dy, with a crew of three. 1980 The Soviet Salyut 6 returned to earth; its cosmonauts had been in space for a record 185 days. 1982 The Mary Rose, which had been the pride of Henry VIII's fleet until it sank in the Solent in 1545, was raised. Born Arthur Phillip, English admiral, 1738; George Williams, founder of the YMCA, 1821; Franзois Mauriac, French author, 1885; Richard Burton, Welsh actor, 1925; Bobby Charlton, English footballer, 1937; Dawn French, English actress and comedienne, 1957. Died Huldrych Zwingli, Swiss religious reformer, 1531; Meriwether Lewis, US explorer, 1809; James Joule, English physicist, 1889; Anton Bruckner, Austrian composer, 1896; 'Chico' Marx, US comedian, 1961; Jean Cocteau, French poet, dramatist, and film director, 1963; Jess Thomas, US operatic tenor, 1993. 12 October Columbus Day in the US. Feast day of St Maximilian of Lorch, Saints Felix and Cyprian, St Edwin, St Wilfrid of York, and St Ethelbur- ga of Barking. 1492 Columbus sighted his first land in discovering the New World, calling it San Salvador. 1901 US President Theodore Roosevelt renamed the Executive Mansion 'The White House'. 1928 The first iron lung was used, at Boston Children's Hospital, Massachusetts. 1948 The first Morris Minor, designed by Alec Issigonis, was produced at Cowley, Oxfordshire, UK. 1949 The German Democratic Republic was declared in the Soviet sector of Berlin. 1968 The 19th Olympic Games opened in Mexico City. 1984 During the Tory Party Conference at the Grand Hotel in Brigh- ton, an IRA bomb exploded in the hotel in an attempt to murder the Bri- tish Cabinet. 1986 Queen Elizabeth II became the first British monarch to visit China. Born King Edward VI, 1537; Elmer Ambrose Sperry, US in- ventor, 1860; James Ramsay McDonald, British statesman, 1866; Ralph Va- ughan Williams, English composer, 1872; Aleister Crowley, British occul- tist, 1875; Luciano Pavarotti, Italian operatic tenor, 1935. Died Piero della Francesca, Italian painter, 1492; Elizabeth Fry, English prison reformer, 1845; Robert Stephenson, English civil engineer, 1859; Robert E Lee, US Confederate general, 1870; Anatole France, French author, 1924; Tom Mix, US western film actor, 1940; Leon Ames, US film actor, 1993. 13 October Feast day of Saints Januarius and Martial, St Gerald of Au- rillac, St Edward the Confessor, St Coloman, St Comgan, St Faustus of Cordova, and St Maurice of Carnoлt. 1307 On the orders of Philip IV of France, the arrest of the Templars on charges of heresy took place in Paris. 1792 The cornerstone of the White House, Washington, DC, was laid by President George Washington. 1884 Greenwich was adapted as the uni- versal time meridian of longitude from which standard times throughout the world are calculated. 1894 The first Merseyside 'derby' football match was played at Goodison Park between Liverpool and Everton, with Everton winning 3-0. 1904 Sigmund Freud's The Interpretation of Dreams was published. 1923 Ankara replaced Istanbul as the capital of Turkey. 1988 The Cardinal of Turin confirmed reports that the Shroud of Turin, believed to carry the imprint of Christ's face, had been scientifically dated to the Middle Ages. Born Rudolf Virchow, German pathologist, 1821; Lillie Langtry, British actress, 1853; Yves Montand, French singer and actor, 1921; Margaret Thatcher, British politician, 1925; Paul Simon, US singer and songwriter, 1941; Marie Osmond, US singer, 1959. Died Claudi- us I, Roman emperor, 54; Nicholas de Malebranche, French philosopher, 1715; Joachim Murat, King of the Two Sicilies, 1815; Antonio Canova, Italian sculptor, 1822; Henry Irving, English actor, 1905; Clifton Webb, US actor, 1966. 14 October National Day of Madagascar. Feast day of St Callixtus I, St Angadiama, St Justus of Lyons, St Burchard of Wьrzburg, St Manaccus, St Manechildis, and St Dominic Lauricatus. 1066 The Battle of Hastings was fought on Senlac Hill, where King Harold was slain as William the Conqu- eror's troops routed the English army. 1884 Photographic film was paten- ted by US entrepreneur and inventor George Eastman. 1920 Oxford degrees were conferred on women for the first time. 1947 The first supersonic flight (670 mph) was made in California by Charles Yeagar in his Bell XI rocket plane. 1971 The US spacecraft Mariner 9 transmitted the first close-up TV pictures of Mars to Earth. 1982 The largest mass wedding to- ok place in Seoul, South Korea, when 5,837 couples were married simulta- neously. Born William Penn, Quaker founder of Pennsylvania, 1644; Йamon de Valera, Irish statesman, 1882; Dwight D Eisenhower, 34th US presi- dent, 1890; e e cummings, US poet, 1894; Lillian Gish, US film actress, 1899; Cliff Richard, English singer, 1940. Died Erwin Rommel, German fi- eld-marshal, 1944; Errol Flynn, Australian actor, 1959; Edith Evans, English actress,1976; Bing Crosby, US singer and film actor, 1977; Leo- nard Bernstein, US conductor and composer, 1990. 15 October Feast day of St Teresa of Avila, St Leonard of Vandoeuvre, St Thecla of Kitzingen, and St Euthymius the Younger. 1581 The first ma- jor ballet was staged at the request of Catherine de' Medici at the pa- lace in Paris. 1582 The Gregorian calendar was adopted in Italy, Spain, Portugal, and France; 5 Oct became 15 Oct. 1915 In World War I, Bulgaria allied itself with the Central European Powers. 1917 Mata Hari, Dutch spy, was shot in Paris, having been found guilty of espionage for the Germans. 1928 The German airship Graf Zeppelin, captained by Hugo Ecke- ner, completed its first transatlantic flight. 1961 The human-rights or- ganization Amnesty International was established in London, UK. 1969 The 'Vietnam Moratorium' - the biggest anti-war demonstration organized in the US - was held across America. 1993 US warships enforced UN sanctions imposed on Haiti, after international efforts to reinstate President Aristide collapsed. Born Virgil, Roman poet, 70 BC; Evangelista Torri- celli, Italian physicist, 1608; Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche, German phi- losopher, 1844; P G Wodehouse, English novelist, 1881; C P Snow, English scientist and novelist, 1905; Mario Puzo, US novelist, 1920; HRH the Duchess of York, 1959. Died Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac, French explo- rer, 1730; Tadeusz Ko'sciuszko, Polish patriot, 1817; Raymond Nicolas Landry Poincarй, French statesman, 1934; Hermann Goering, Nazi leader, 1946; Cole Porter, US composer and lyricist, 1964. 16 October Feast day of Saints Martinian and Maxima, St Margaret- Mary, St Anastasius of Cluny, St Hedwig, St Bertrand of Comminges, St Bechari- us, St Mommolinus, St Lull, St Gerard Majella, and St Gall. 1815 Napole- on was exiled to the Atlantic island of St Helena. 1846 The first public surgical operation using ether as an anesthetic was performed at the Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston. 1902 The first detention center housing young offenders was opened in Borstal, Kent, UK. 1922 The Simp- lon II railroad tunnel, under the Alps, was completed. 1946 Nazi war criminals, including von Ribbentrop, Rosenberg, and Streicher, were han- ged at Nuremberg. 1964 China exploded a nuclear device. 1964 Labour Par- ty leader Harold Wilson became Prime Minister. 1978 Cardinal Karol Woj- tyla was elected Pope John Paul II - the first non-Italian pope since 1542. 1987 Southern England was hit by hurricane force winds, causing 19 deaths and hundreds of millions of pounds' worth of damage. Born Noah Webster, US lexicographer, 1758; Oscar Wilde, Irish dramatist and aut- hor, 1854; Austen Chamberlain, British statesman, 1863; David Ben Guri- on, Israeli statesman, 1886; Eugene O'Neill, US dramatist, 1888; Gьnter Grass, German novelist, 1927. Died Hugh Latimer, bishop and Protestant martyr, 1555; Nicholas Ridley, bishop and Protestant martyr, 1555; Marie Antoinette, Queen of France, 1793; George Marshall, US general and dip- lomat, 1959; Moshe Dayan, Israeli general and politician, 1981; Cornel Wilde, US film actor, 1989; Paolo Bortoluzzi, Italian dancer and chore- ographer, 1993. 17 October Feast day of The Ursuline Martyrs of Valenciennes, Saints Ethelbert and Ethelred, St John the Dwarf, St Anstrudis or Austrude, St Seraphino, St Nothelm, St Ignatius of Antioch, and St Rule. 1651 Charles II, defeated by Cromwell at Worcester, fled to France, destitute and friendless. 1777 British commander General Burgoyne surrendered to Gene- ral Horatio Gates at Saratoga, a victory for the American colonists. 1914 An earthquake struck Greece and Asia Minor, killing over 3,000 pe- ople. 1931 US gangster Al Capone was sentenced to 11 years in prison for income-tax evasion, the only charge that could be sustained against him. 1956 Calder Hall, Britain's first nuclear power station, was opened. 1959 The South African De Beers diamond firm announced that synthetic industrial diamonds had been produced. 1977 A US Supreme Court ruling allowed Concorde to use Kennedy Airport, New York. Born John Wilkes, British political reformer, 1727; Karen Blixen (Isak Dinesen), Danish author, 1885; Nathaniel West, US novelist, 1903; Arthur Miller, US dra- matist, 1915; Rita Hayworth, US film actress, 1918; Montgomery Clift, US film actor; Ann Jones, English tennis player, 1938. Died Philip Sidney, English poet and soldier, 1586; Frйdйric Chopin, Polish composer, 1849; Gustav Robert Kirchoff, German physicist, 1887; Julia Ward Howe, US aut- hor, 1910; S J Perelman, US humorist, 1979; William Paton, English phar- macologist, 1993. 18 October Feast day of St Luke, St Gwen of Corwall, and St Justus of Beauvais. 1685 The Edict of Nantes, granting religious freedom to the Huguenots, was revoked by King Louis XIV of France. 1826 Britain's last state lottery was held. 1887 Russia transferred Alaska to the US for $7.2 million. 1922 The British Broadcasting Company (later Corporation) was officially formed. 1977 Germany's anti-terrorist squad stormed a hi- jacked Lufthansa aircraft at Mogadishu Airport, Somalia, killing three of the four Palestinian hijackers and freeing all of the hostages. 1989 Following a wave of pro-democracy demonstrations in East Germany, Erich Honecker was replaced as head of state by Egon Krenz. 1989 With the end of Communist rule, Hungary was proclaimed a free republic. Born Canalet- to, Italian painter, 1697; Henri Bergson, French philosopher, 1859; Pi- erre Trudeau, Canadian politician, 1919; Chuck Berry, US singer, 1926; George C Scott, US film actor, 1927; Martina Navratilova, Czech tennis player, 1956. Died Lord Palmerston, British politician, 1865; Charles Babbage, English mathematician, 1871; Charles Franзois Gounod, French composer, 1893; Thomas Edison, US inventor, 1931; Elizabeth Arden, cos- metics company founder, 1966; Pierre Mendиs-France, French statesman, 1982. 19 October Feast day of St Paul of the Cross, St Philip Howard, St Eth- bin, St Aquilinus of Evreux, St Cleopatra, St Frideswide, St Peter of Alcбntara, St John de Brйbeuf, St Renй Goupil, St Varus, and Saints Pto- lemy and Lucius. 1781 Lord Cornwallis surrendered to General Washington at Yorktown, Virginia, marking the end of the Revolutionary War. 1813 The Allies defeated Napoleon at the Battle of the Nations at Leipzig. 1860 The first company to manufacture internal combustion engines was formed in Florence. 1864 In the American Civil War, General Sheridan was victorious over the Confederates at the Battle of Cedar Creek. 1872 The Holtermann nugget was mined at Hill End, New South Wales; weighing 630lbs, it was the largest gold-bearing nugget ever found. 1935 The Lea- gue of Nations imposed sanctions on Italy, following her invasion of Abyssinia (Ethiopia). 1987 Wall Street was struck by 'Black Monday', du- ring which millions were wiped out on stock markets around the world. 1989 After serving 14 years in prison for the IRA Guildford and Woolwich bombings, the 'Guildford Four' had their convictions quashed. Born Tho- mas Browne, English author and physician, 1605; Leigh Hunt, English poet and essayist, 1784; Alfred Dreyfus, French army officer, 1859; Auguste Marie Lumiиre, French photographic pioneer, 1862; John Le Carrй, English novelist, 1931; Peter Tosh, Jamaican reggae musician, 1944. Died King John of England, 1216; Thomas Browne, English author and physician, 1682; Jonathan Swift, Irish author, 1745; George Pullman, US engineer and sleeping-car manufacturer, 1897; Ernest Rutherford, New Zealand phy- sicist, 1937; Jacqueline du Prй, British cellist, 1987. 20 October Feast day of St Artemius, St Andrew the Calybite of Crete, St Caprasius of Agen, St Bertilla Boscardin, and St Acca. 1714 The coro- nation of King George I took place. 1818 Britain and the US established the 49th parallel as the boundary between Canada and the US. 1822 The Sunday Times was first published. 1827 The Battle of Navarino, off the coast of Greece, ended with the combined British, French, and Russian fleets completely destroying the Egyptian and Turkish fleets. 1935 Mao Zedong's Long March ended in Yenan, north China. 1944 The Allies captu- red Aachen, Germany. 1944 US troops landed at Leyte, in the Philippines. 1968 Jacqueline Kennedy, widow of US president Kennedy, married Greek millionaire Aristotle Onassis. 1973 The Sydney Opera House, designed by Danish architect John Utzon, was opened to the public. Born Christopher Wren, English architect, 1632; Lord Palmerston, British statesman, 1784; Arthur Rimbaud, French poet, 1854; James Chadwick, English physicist, 1891; Anna Neagle, British actress, 1904; Tom Petty, US guitarist and singer, 1953. Died Thomas Linacre, English physician and humanist, 1524; Richard Francis Burton, English explorer and scholar, 1890; Herbert Hoo- ver, 31st US president, 1964; Bud Flanagan, English comedian, 1968; She- ila Scott, English aviator, 1988; Anthony Quayle, English actor, 1989. 21 October Feast day of St Hilarion, St Fintan or Munnu of Taghmon, St Condedus, St Tuda, St John of Bridlington, and St Malchus. 1805 The Bri- tish defeated the Franco-Spanish fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar. 1858 Offenbach's opera Orpheus in the Underworld was first performed, in Pa- ris. 1934 Mao Zedong's Long March, with his 100,000-strong Communist ar- my, began. 1950 Tibet was occupied by Chinese forces. 1960 Britain laun- ched its first nuclear submarine, the HMS Dreadnought. 1966 The Welsh village of Aberfan was engulfed by a collapsed slagheap, killing 144, including 116 children. 1967 Egyptian missiles sank the Israeli destro- yer Eilat, with the loss of over 40 lives. 1984 Niki Lauda became world motor-racing champion for the third time. 1991 Jesse Turner, an American who had been held hostage in Lebanon for just under five years, was fre- ed by his captors. Born Katsushika Hokusai, Japanese artist and printma- ker, 1760; Samuel Taylor Coleridge, English poet, 1772; Alfred Nobel, Swedish industrialist, 1833; Georg Solti, British conductor, 1912; Diz- zie Gillespie, US jazz trumpeter, 1917; Carrie Fisher, US film actress, 1956. Died Pietro Aretino, Italian writer, 1556; Edmund Waller, English poet, 1687; Horatio, Viscount Nelson, English admiral, killed at Trafal- gar, 1805; Jack Kerouac, US poet and novelist, 1969; Bob Todd, English comedy actor, 1992. 22 October Feast day of St Philip of Heraclea and his Companions, St Mellon or Mallonus, St Abercius, Saints Nunilo and Alodia, and St Dona- tus of Fiesole. 1797 The first parachute jump was made by Andrй-Jacques Garnerin from a balloon above the Parc Monceau, Paris. 1878 The first floodlit rugby match took place, Broughton v Swinton, at Broughton, Lancs. 1883 New York's Metropolitan Opera House opened. 1909 French avi- ator Elise Deroche became the first woman to make a solo flight. 1910 Dr Hawley Crippen was found guilty of poisoning his wife and was sentenced to be hanged on 23 October 1910. 1935 Haiti was struck by a hurricane, causing over 2,000 deaths. 1962 US President Kennedy announced that So- viet missile bases had been installed in Cuba. 1987 The first volume of the Gutenberg Bible was sold at auction in New York for $5.39m/Ј3.26m - a record price for a printed book. Born Franz Liszt, Hungarian composer, 1811; Sarah Bernhardt, French actress, 1844; Doris Lessing, English no- velist, 1919; Robert Rauschenberg, US artist, 1925; Derek Jacobi, Eng- lish actor, 1938; Catherine Deneuve, French film actress, 1943. Died Charles Martel, leader of the Franks, 741; Thomas Sheraton, English fur- niture maker, 1806; Paul Cйzanne, French painter, 1906; Pablo Casals, Spanish cellist, 1973; Arnold Joseph Toynbee, English historian, 1975. 23 October Feast day of St Severino Boethius, St Severinus or Seurin of Bordeaux, St Elfleda or Ethelfled, St Allucio, St Ignatius of Constanti- nople, St Theodoret, St Romanus of Rouen, and St John of Capistrano. 1642 The Battle of Edgehill, in the Cotswolds, took place - the first major conflict of the English Civil War. 1922 Andrew Bonar Law took of- fice as British prime minister; he was replaced 22.5.23, making his the shortest term of office in the twentieth century. 1942 The Battle of El Alamein, in Egypt, began. 1946 The first meeting of the United Nations General Assembly took place in New York. 1947 Julie Andrews made her de- but in Starlight Roof, aged 12. 1956 The Hungarian revolt against Soviet leadership began, in which thousands of demonstrators called for the withdrawal of Soviet forces. 1970 Gary Gabelich achieved the world land speed record of 631.367mph, in his rocket-engine automobile on Bonnevil- le Salt Flats, Utah. 1987 Former British champion jockey Lester Piggott was sentenced to three years in prison for tax evasion. Born Pierre La- rousse, French lexicographer, 1817; Robert Bridges, British poet, 1844; Louis Riel, French-Canadian rebel, 1844; Douglas Jardine, English cric- keter, 1900; Pelй, Brazilian footballer, 1940; Anita Roddick, British entrepreneur and founder of The Body Shop, 1942. Died Marcus Junius Bru- tus, Roman soldier, 42 BC; Thйophile Gautier, French poet, 1872; W G Grace, English cricketer, 1915; John Boyd Dunlop, Scottish inventor of the pneumatic rubber tire, 1921; Zane Grey, US novelist, 1939; Al Jol- son, US singer and actor, 1950. 24 October National Day of Zambia and United Nations Day. Feast day of St Martin or Mark, St Martin of Vertou, St Elesbaan, St Felix of Thibiu- ca, St Antony Claret, St Evergislus, St Aretas, St Senoch, St Maglorius or Maelor, St Proclus of Constantinople, and The Martyrs of Najran. 1648 The Treaty of Westphalia was signed, ending the Thirty Years' War. 1857 The first football club was formed by a group of Cambridge University Old Boys meeting in Sheffield. 1901 Mrs Ann Edson Taylor braved a des- cent over Niagara Falls in a padded barrel to help pay the mortgage. 1945 The United Nations charter came into force. 1977 Saudi Arabia purc- hased the transatlantic liner France for use as a floating luxury hotel. 1987 Heavyweight boxing champion Frank Bruno knocked out Joe Bugner in Britain's most hyped boxing match held at White Hart Lane, London, UK. 1989 US television preacher Jim Bakker was sentenced to 45 years in pri- son and fined $500,000/Ј272,000 for his multi-milion dollar scam. Born Anton van Leeuwenhoek, Dutch microscope pioneer, 1632; Jacques Lafitte, French banker and politician, 1767; Sybil Thorndike, English actress, 1882; Tito Gobbi, Italian baritone, 1915; Robin Day, English TV presen- ter, 1923; Bill Wyman, English bass guitarist, 1941. Died Jane Seymour, 3rd wife of King Henry VIII, 1537; Tycho Brahe, Danish astronomer, 1601; Vidkun Quisling, Norwegian politician and Nazi collaborator, 1945; Franz Lehбr, Hungarian composer, 1948; Christian Dior, French couturier, 1957; Mary McCarthy, US author, 1989; Jo Grimond, Scottish politician and wri- ter, 1993; Jiri Hajek, Czech human-rights campaigner, 1993. 25 October Feast day of Saints Crispin and Crispinian, Saints Fronto and George, The Forty Martyrs of England and Wales, Saints Chrysanthus and Daria, St Richard Gwyn, and St Gaudentius of Brescia. 1415 The Eng- lish army, led by King Henry V, defeated the French at the Battle of Agincourt, during the Hundred Years' War. 1839 Bradshaw's Railway Guide, the world's first railroad timetable, was published in Manchester. 1854 Lord Cardigan led the Charge of the Light Brigade during the Battle of Balaclava in the Crimean War. 1900 The Transvaal, a region in South Af- rica which is rich in minerals, especially gold, was annexed by the Bri- tish. 1961 The British satirical magazine Private Eye was first publis- hed. 1971 Taiwan was expelled from the UN to allow the admission of the People's Republic of China. 1983 Over 2,000 US troops invaded Grenada. Born Thomas Babington Macaulay, English historian and essayist, 1800; Johann Strauss the Younger, Austrian composer, 1825; Georges Bizet, French composer, 1838; Pablo Picasso, Spanish artist, 1881; Richard Eve- lyn Byrd, US aviator and explorer, 1888; Abel Gance, French film direc- tor, 1889. Died Geoffrey Chaucer, English poet, 1400; Giorgione, Italian painter, 1510; Evangelista Torricelli, Italian physicist and inventor of the barometer, 1647; King George II, 1760; Frank Norris, US novelist, 1902; Frederick Rolfe, English writer, 1913; Vincent Price, US film ac- tor, 1993. 26 October National Day of Iran and of Austria. Feast day of Saints Lu- cian and Marcian, St Bean, St Rusticus of Narbonne, St Eata, and St Cedd. 1825 The Erie Canal, linking the Niagara River with the Hudson Ri- ver, was opened to traffic. 1860 Italian unification leader Giuseppe Ga- ribaldi proclaimed Victor Emmanuel King of Italy. 1881 The legendary 'Gunfight at the OK Corral' took place at Tombstone, Arizona. 1905 Swe- den and Norway ended their union and Oscar II, the Norwegian king, abdi- cated. 1927 Duke Ellington and his orchestra recorded the jazz classic, Creole Love Song. 1929 T W Evans of Miami, Florida, became the first wo- man to give birth aboard an aircraft. 1956 The UN's International Atomic Energy Agency was formed. 1965 Queen Elizabeth presented the Beatles with their MBEs at Buckingham Palace. 1985 A US infant, known as Baby Fae, was given a baboon's heart to replace her malformed one. Born Geor- ges Danton, French revolutionary leader, 1759; Leon Trotsky, Russian Communist leader, 1879; Franзois Mitterand, French statesman, 1916; Mo- hammed Reza Pahlavi, last Shah of Iran, 1919; John Arden, English drama- tist, 1930; Bob Hoskins, English actor, 1942. Died Gilles de Rais, French marshal, 1440; William Hogarth, English artist and engraver, 1764; Elizabeth Stanton, US feminist, 1902; Igor Sikorsky, US aeronauti- cal engineer, 1972; Roger Hollis, British civil servant and alleged do- uble agent, 1973. 27 October Feast day of St Otteran or Odhran of Iona, and St Frumentius of Ethiopia. 1662 Charles II sold Dunkirk to Louis XIV for 2.5 million livres. 1901 In Paris, a 'getaway car' was used for the first time, when thieves robbed a shop and sped away. 1904 The first section of New York City's subway system was opened. 1917 US troops entered the war in Fran- ce. 1936 Mrs Wallis Simpson was granted a divorce from her second hus- band, leaving her free to marry King Edward VIII. 1971 The Republic of Congo changed its name to the Republic of Zaire. 1986 The City of London experienced 'Big Bang' day, due to the deregulation of the money market. Born Captain James Cook, English naval explorer, 1728; Nicolи Paganini, Italian violinist and composer, 1782; Theodore Roosevelt, 26th US presi- dent, 1858; Dylan Thomas, Welsh poet, 1905; Roy Lichtenstein, US pain- ter, 1923; Sylvia Plath, US poet, 1932; John Cleese, English actor and comedian, 1939. Died Ivan III (the Great), Tsar of Russia, 1505; George Morland, English painter, 1804; Lise Meitner, Austrian nuclear physi- cist, 1968; Eric Maschwitz, English lyricist, 1969; James M Cain, US no- velist, 1977. 28 October Feast day of Saints Anastasia and Cyril, St Faro, St Abraham of Ephesus, St Salvius or Saire, St Simon, St Jude or Thaddeus, and St Fidelis of Como. 1636 Harvard University, the first in the US, was foun- ded. 1746 An earthquake demolished Lima and Callao, in Peru. 1831 Eng- lish chemist and physicist Michael Faraday demonstrated the first dyna- mo. 1886 The Statue of Liberty, designed by Auguste Bartholdi, was pre- sented by France to the US to mark the 100th anniversary of the Declara- tion of Independence. 1893 HMS Havelock, the Royal Navy's first destro- yer, went on trials. 1914 George Eastman, of Eastman Kodak Company, an- nounced the introduction of a color photographic process. 1971 By a mar- gin of 112 votes, the House of Commons backed Prime Minister Heath's de- cision to apply for EEC membership. 1982 Felipe Gonzбlez became Spain's first Socialist prime minister, with a sweeping electoral victory. Born Evelyn Waugh, English novelist, 1903; Francis Bacon, British painter, 1909; Jonas Salk, US microbiologist, 1914; Cleo Laine, British singer, 1927; Carl Davis, US composer, 1936; Hank Marvin, English guitarist, 1941. Died John Locke, English philosopher, 1704; John Smeaton, English civil engineer, 1792; Ottmar Mergenthaler, German inventor of the Lino- type, 1899; Georges Carpentier, French boxer, 1975; Woody Herman, US bandleader, 1987; Pietro Annigoni, Italian painter, 1988. 29 October National Day of Turkey. Feast day of The Martyrs of Douay, St Theuderius or Chef, St Colman of Kilmacduagh, and St Narcissus of Je- rusalem. 1618 Sir Walter Raleigh, English navigator, courtier, and once favorite of Elizabeth I, was beheaded at Whitehall for treason. 1787 Mo- zart's opera Don Giovanni was first performed, in Prague. 1863 The In- ternational Red Cross was founded by Swiss philanthropist Henri Dunant. 1929 The Wall Street crash known as 'Black Tuesday' took place, leading to the Great Depression. 1964 The union of Tanganyika and Zanzibar was announced, adopting the name of Tanzania. 1967 Expo-67, an international exhibition, opened in Montreal. 1982 In Australia, Lindy Chamberlain was sentenced to life imprisonment for the murder of her nine-week-old baby who, she claimed, had been carried off by a dingo. 1991 Vietnam formally approved a plan to repatriate forcibly tens of thousands of Vietnamese refugees living in camps in Hong Kong. Born James Boswell, Scottish bi- ographer and diarist, 1740; Wilfred Rhodes, English cricketer, 1877; Je- an Giraudoux, French author, 1882; Fanny Brice, US singer and entertai- ner, 1891; Joseph Goebbels, German Nazi propaganda chief, 1897; Richard Dreyfuss, US actor, 1947. Died Joseph Pulitzer, US newspaper publisher, 1911; Frances Hodgson Burnett, English novelist, 1924; Gustav V, King of Sweden, 1950; Louis Burt Mayer, US film producer and distributor, 1957; John Braine, British novelist, 1986. 30 October Feast day of St Marcellus the Centurion, St Alphonsus Rodri- guez, St Germanus of Capua, St Serapion of Antioch, St Asterius of Ama- sea, and St Ethelnoth. 1485 The Yeomen of the Guard were established by King Henry VII. 1650 'Quakers', the more common name for the Society of Friends, came into being during a court case, at which George Fox, the founder, told the magistrate to 'quake and tremble at the word of God'. 1911 P'u-Yi, the boy emperor of China aged five, granted a new constitu- tion, officially ending three centuries of Manchu domination over China. 1918 The Republic of Czechoslovakia was proclaimed. 1925 The Scottish inventor John Baird made the first televized transmission of a moving object (a 15-year-old office boy). 1938 US actor Orson Welles' radio production of The War of the Worlds by H G Wells caused panic in the US. 1965 Brian Jones of the Rolling Stones was jailed for drug offenses. 1988 Sun Myung Moon, head of the Unification Church, conducted the mar- riage of 6,516 couples in a Seoul factory; the couples had first met the day before. Born Richard Brinsley Sheridan, Irish dramatist, 1751; John Adams, 2nd US president, 1735; Alfred Sisley, French painter, 1840; Ezra Pound, US poet, 1885; Louis Malle, French film director, 1932; Diego Ma- radona, Argentinian footballer, 1960. Died Edward Vernon, English admi- ral, 1757; Edmund Cartwright, English inventor, 1823; Andrew Bonar Law, British statesman, 1923; Pio Baroja, Spanish novelist, 1956; Jim Molli- son, Scottish pioneer aviator, 1959; Barnes Neville Wallis, British ae- ronautical engineer, 1979. 31 October All Hallows' Eve (Halloween). Feast day of St Quentin or Qu- intinus, St Bee or Bega, St Wolfgang, and St Foillan of Fosses. 1517 Martin Luther nailed his theses on indulgences to the church door at Wittenberg, Germany. 1864 Nevada became the 36th state of the Union. 1902 The first telegraph cable across the Pacific Ocean was completed. 1940 The Battle of Britain ended. 1951 Zebra crossings came into effect in Britain. 1952 At Eniwetok Atoll, in the Pacific, the US detonated the first hydrogen bomb. 1956 British and French troops bombed Egyptian air- fields at Suez. 1971 An IRA bomb exploded at the top of the Post Office Tower, London, UK. 1982 The Thames barrier, part of London's flood de- fenses, was raised for the first time. 1984 Indian Prime Minister Mrs Ghandi was assassinated by her Sikh bodyguard. Born Jan Vermeer, Dutch painter, 1632; John Keats, English poet, 1795; Joseph Wilson Swan, Eng- lish inventor of the electric lamp, 1828; Chiang Kai-shek, Chinese lea- der, 1887; Dale Evans, US film actress, 1912; Michael Collins, US astro- naut, 1930. Died Dan Leno, British comedian, 1904; Harry Houdini, US es- capologist, 1926; Max Reinhardt, Austrian producer and director, 1943; Augustus John, Welsh painter, 1961; Indira Gandhi, Indian politician, assassinated, 1984; River Phoenix, US film actor, 1993. 1 November National Day of Algeria. Feast day of All Saints, St Benig- nus of Dijon, Saints Caesarius and Julian, St Austremonius or Stremoine, St Cadfan, St Mary, martyr, St Vigor, St Marcellus of Paris, and Saint Mathurin or Maturinus. 1755 An earthquake reduced two-thirds of Lisbon to rubble and resulted, according to accounts, in the death of 60,000 people. 1848 The first W H Smith railroad bookstall opened, at Euston Station, London, UK. 1911 Woman's Weekly was first published. 1914 The British ships Good Hope and Monmouth were sunk by the Germans, at the Battle of Coronel. 1940 A prehistoric painting was discovered in a cave in Lascaux in the Dordogne, France. 1950 Two Puerto Rican nationalists attempted to assassinate US President Truman. 1959 The first stretch of the M1 expressway was opened in Britain. 1972 Orissa, India, was struck by a tidal wave which killed 10,000 people and left 5 million homeless. 1992 Democrat Bill Clinton was elected as 42nd US president. Born Benve- nuto Cellini, Italian sculptor and goldsmith, 1500; Antonio Canova, Ita- lian sculptor, 1757; Stephen Crane, US novelist, 1871; L S Lowry, Eng- lish painter, 1887; Victoria de los Angeles, Spanish soprano, 1923; Gary Player, South African golfer, 1935. Died George Gordon, British Protes- tant agitator, 1793; Ezra Pound, US poet, 1972; King Vidor, US film di- rector, 1982; Phil Silvers, US comedian and actor, 1985; Louis Johnson, New Zealand poet, 1988. 2 November Feast day of All Souls, St Victorinus of Pettau, and Saint Marcian of Cyrrhus. 1785 The first insubmersible lifeboat was patented by Lionel Lakin, a London coach builder. 1871 The 'Rogues Gallery' was started, when photographs of all prisoners in Britain were first taken. 1899 Ladysmith, in Natal, South Africa, was besieged by the Boers. 1917 The Balfour Declaration, stating British support for the Jewish Zionist goal of a homeland in Palestine, was sent to Lord Rothschild. 1930 Ras Tafari, King of Ethiopia, was crowned Emperor Haile Selassie ('Might of the Trinity'). 1957 With eight simultaneous hits in the UK Top 30 chart, Elvis Presley set an all-time record. 1960 A British jury acquitted Pen- guin Books of obscenity in the matter of publishing D H Lawrence's Lady Chatterley's Lover. 1976 James Earl Carter was elected the 39th Presi- dent of the US. 1990 Ivana Trump filed for divorce from US millionaire Donald Trump. Born Daniel Boone, US frontiersman, 1734; Marie Antoinet- te, Queen of King Louis XVI of France, 1755; Joseph Radetzky, Austrian field marshal, 1766; Luchino Visconti, Italian film director, 1906; Burt Lancaster, US film actor, 1913; Keith Emerson, English rock musician, 1944. Died Richard Hooker, English theologian, 1600; Jenny Lind, Swedish soprano, 1887; William Powell Frith, British painter, 1909; George Ber- nard Shaw, Irish dramatist, 1950; James Thurber, US humorous writer and cartoonist, 1961. 3 November National Day of Panama. Feast day of St Rumwald, St Malachy of Armagh, St Amicus, St Winifred or Gwenfrewi, St Martin de Porres, and St Pirminus. 1493 Christopher Columbus, on his second voyage of discove- ry, sighted Dominica, in the West Indies. 1706 A violent earthquake oc- curred in the Abruzzi, Italy, killing some 15,000 inhabitants. 1927 Tur- key adopted the Roman alphabet, abolishing the use of Arabic. 1942 Bri- tish troops, led by Field Marshal Montgomery, broke through Rommel's front line in Africa. 1948 Democrat Harry Truman was elected as 33rd US president. 1957 The Russian dog, Laika, became the first in space aboard Sputnik II. 1964 Democrat Lyndon Bains Johnson was elected as 36th US president. 1975 The North Sea pipeline, the first to be built underwa- ter, was officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II. 1993 A mystery woman paid a record 5 million Swiss francs (Ј2.2m) for an envelope with two stamps sent from Mauritius to a Bordeaux wine exporter in 1847. Born Vincenzo Bellini, Italian operatic composer, 1801; Karl Baedeker, German guide-book publisher, 1801; Charles Bronson, US film actor, 1922; Roy Emerson, Australian tennis player, 1936; Larry Holmes, US boxing champi- on, 1949; Adam Ant, English rock musician, 1954. Died Constantius II, Roman emperor of the East, 361; Annie Oakley, US entertainer and mark- swoman, 1926; Henri Matisse, French painter, 1954; Ralph Hodgson, Eng- lish poet, 1962; Leon Theremin, Russian inventor, 1993. 4 November Feast day of saints Vitalis and Agricola, St Birstan or Brynstan of Winchester, St Pierius, St John Zedazneli, St Charles Borro- meo, St Joannicus, and St Clarus. 1605 Guy Fawkes, a Roman Catholic con- vert and conspirator in the Gunpowder Plot, was arrested in Parliament's cellar. 1862 US inventor Richard Gatling patented the rapid-fire, or machine, gun. 1914 The first fashion show was organized by Edna Woodman Chase of Vogue magazine, and held at the Ritz-Carlton Hotel, New York. 1922 British archeologist Howard Carter discovered the tomb of the Egyp- tian pharaoh Tutankhamen. 1946 UNESCO was established, with headquarters in Paris. 1952 Republican General Dwight Eisenhower elected as 34th US president. 1979 Iranian students stormed the US Embassy in Teheran and held over 60 staff and US marines hostage. 1980 Ronald Reagan was elec- ted 40th US president. 1991 Imelda Marcos returned to the Philippines after five years of exile in the US; the government endorsed her return so that she could be tried on corruption and tax evasion charges. Born King William III, 1605; Augustus Montague Toplady, British clergyman and author, 1740; Eden Phillpotts, English novelist and dramatist; G E Moo- re, British philosopher, 1873; Will Rogers, US humorist and actor, 1879; Art Carney, US actor, 1918. Died Felix Mendelssohn, German composer, 1847; Paul Delaroche, French painter, 1856; Joseph Rowntree, British co- coa manufacturer and philanthropist, 1859; Wilfred Owen, English poet, 1918; Gabriel Faurй, French organist and composer, 1924. 5 November Guy Fawkes' Night in Britain. Feast day of Saints Elisabeth and Zachary, St Galation, St Bertilla of Chelles, and St Episteme. 1854 The combined British and French armies defeated the Russians at the Battle of Inkerman during the Crimean War. 1912 The British Board of Film Censors was appointed. 1914 Cyprus was annexed by Britain on the outbreak of war with Turkey. 1919 Rudolph Valentino, the archetypal ro- mantic screen lover, married actress Jean Acker; the marriage lasted less than six hours. 1927 Britain's first automatic traffic lights began functioning, in Wolverhampton. 1968 Richard Nixon was elected 37th US president. 1990 Rabbi Meir Kahane, founder of the militant Jewish Defen- se League and Israel's extremist anti-Arab Kach party, was assassinated in a New York City hotel. Born James Elroy Flecker, English poet, 1884; John Haldane, Scottish scientist, 1892; Vivien Leigh, British actress, 1913; Lester Piggott, British jockey, 1935; Elke Sommer, German actress, 1940; Art Garfunkel, US singer and composer, 1941. Died Mack Sennett, US film producer, 1960; Maurice Utrillo, French painter, 1955; Al Capp, US cartoonist, 1979; Jacques Tati, French film actor and director, 1982; Vladimir Horowitz, US pianist, 1989; Robert Maxwell, British publishing and newspaper proprietor, 1991. 6 November Feast day of St Demetrian of Khytri, St Melaine, St Barlaam of Khutyn, St Leonard of Noblac, St Winnoc, and St Illtud. 1429 Henry VI was crowned King of England. 1860 Abraham Lincoln was elected 16th US president. 1869 Diamonds were discovered at Kimberley, in Cape Province, South Africa. 1924 British Tory leader Stanley Baldwin was elected prime minister. 1932 In general elections held in Germany, the Nazis emerged as the largest party. 1956 Construction of the Kariba High Dam, on the Zambezi River between Zambia and Zimbabwe, began. 1975 UK punk rock gro- up, the Sex Pistols, gave their first public performance at London's St Martin's College of Art; college authorities cut the concert short - af- ter 10 minutes. 1988 Six thousand US Defense Department computers were crippled by a virus; the culprit was the 23-year-old son of the head of the country's computer security agency. Born Alois Senefelder, Austrian inventor of lithography, 1771; Adolphe Sax, Belgian inventor of the sa- xophone, 1814; John Philip Sousa, US bandmaster and composer, 1854; John Alcock, British pioneer aviator, 1892; Mike Nichols, US director, 1931; Sally Field, US actress, 1946. Died Gustavus II, King of Sweden, 1632; Heinrich Schьtz, German composer, 1672; William Hone, British satirist and editor, 1842; Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Russian composer, 1893; Kate Greenaway, British illustrator, 1901; Gene Eliza Tierney, US film act- ress, 1991. 7 November National day of Russia. Feast day of St Herculanus of Peru- gia, St Engelbert, St Willibrord, and St Florentius of Strasbourg. 1783 The last public hanging in England took place when John Austin, a for- ger, was executed at Tyburn. 1872 The Marie Celeste, the ill-fated bri- gantine, sailed from New York to be found mysteriously abandoned near the Azores some time later. 1916 Jeanette Rankin, of the state of Monta- na, became the first woman member of US Congress. 1917 The Bolshevik Re- volution, led by Lenin, overthrew Prime Minister Alexander Kerensky's government. 1972 Richard Nixon was re-elected US president. 1988 In Las Vegas, 'Sugar' Ray Lewis knocked out Canadian Donny Londe, completing his collection of world titles at five different weights. 1990 Mary Ro- binson became the Irish Republic's first woman president. Born Marie Cu- rie, French physicist, 1867; Leon Trotsky, Russian Communist leader, 1879; Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman, Indian physicist, 1888; Albert Ca- mus, French writer, 1913; Joan Sutherland, operatic soprano, 1926; Joni Mitchell, Canadian singer, 1943. Died Godfrey Kneller, German painter, 1723; Victor McLaglen, English film actor, 1959; Eleanor Roosevelt, US writer and lecturer, 1962; Gene Tunney, US heavyweight boxer, 1978; Ste- ve McQueen, US film actor, 1980; Alexander Dubcek, Czech statesman; Ade- laide Hall, US singer, dancer, and actress, 1993. 8 November Feast day of The Four Crowned Martyrs, St Cuby or Cybi, St Godfrey of Amiens, St Deusdedit, St Willehad, and St Tysilio or Suliau. 1793 The Louvre was opened to the public by the Revolutionary govern- ment, although only part of the collection could be viewed. 1895 William Rцntgen discovered X-rays during an experiment at the University of Wurzburg. 1923 Hitler led his unsuccessful rising in Munich, known as the Beer Hall Putsch. 1942 Under Eisenhower's command, British and US forces invaded North Africa, in 'Operation Torch'. 1958 Melody Maker published the first British album charts. 1987 An IRA bomb went off in Eniskillen, Co Fermanagh, shortly before a Remembrance Day service, kil- ling 11 people. 1991 EC foreign ministers, meeting in Rome, imposed an economic embargo on Yugoslavia in an effort to halt the civil war there. Born Edmond Halley, English astronomer, 1656; Bram Stoker, Irish writer, 1847; Herbert Austin, English automobile manufacturer, 1866; Margaret Mitchell, US novelist, 1900; Christiaan Barnard, South African heart transplant pioneer, 1922; Alain Delon, French film actor, 1935. Died John Milton, English poet, 1674; Tom Sayers, English bare-knuckle pugi- list, 1865; Fred Archer, English jockey, 1886; Victorien Sardou, French dramatist, 1908; Ivan Alexeyevich Bunin, Russian poet, 1953; Edgard Varиse, French composer, 1965. 9 November National Day of Cambodia. Feast day of St Theodore the Rec- ruit, St Vitonus or Vanne, and St Benignus or Benen. 1837 Moses Montefi- ore became the first Jew to be knighted in England. 1859 Flogging in the British army was abolished. 1908 Britain's first woman mayor, Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, was elected at Aldeburgh. 1918 Following a revolution in Germany, Kaiser William abdicated and fled to Holland. 1925 The SS (Schutzstaffel or 'Protection Squad') was formed in Germany. 1965 Capi- tal punishment was abolished in Britain. 1988 Gary Kasparov became world chess champion after beating Anatoly Karpov, who had held the title for ten years, in Moscow. 1989 E Germany opened its borders to the West and demolition of the Berlin Wall began. Born Ivan Turgenev, Russian drama- tist, 1818; King Edward VII, 1841; Giles Gilbert Scott, English archi- tect, 1880; Katherine Hepburn, US film actress, 1909; Hedy Lamarr, US film actress, 1913; Carl Sagan, US astronomer, 1934. Died Guillaume Apollinaire, French poet, 1918; James Ramsay MacDonald, British states- man, 1937; Neville Chamberlain, British statesman, 1940; Dylan Thomas, Welsh poet, 1953; Charles de Gaulle, French statesman, 1970; Yves Mon- tand, French singer and actor, 1991. 10 November Feast day of St Leo the Great, St Justus of Canterbury, St Aedh MacBrice, St Theoctista, and St Andrew Avellino. 1775 The Continen- tal Congress authorized the creation of the 'Continental Marines', now known as the US Marines. 1862 The first performance of Giuseppe Verdi's opera La Forza del Destino was held in St Petersburg. 1871 Henry Morton Stanley, who had been sent to track down missing explorer David Living- stone, met him at Ujiji, on Lake Taganyika. 1938 Kristallnacht, or 'night of (broken) glass', took place when Nazis burned 267 synagogues and destroyed thousands of Jewish homes and businesses in Germany. 1928 Hirohito was crowned Emperor of Japan, at the age of 27. 1989 Bulldozers began demolishing the 28-year-old Berlin Wall, following the govern- ment's announcement that it would allow free travel between East and West Germany. Born Martin Luther, German Protestant reformer, 1483; Franзois Couperin, French composer, 1668; William Hogarth, English pain- ter and engraver, 1697; Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller, German poet and dramatist, 1759; Jacob Epstein, British sculptor, 1880; Richard Burton, Welsh actor, 1925. Died Pope Leo I (the Great), 461; Arthur Rim- baud, French poet, 1891; Mustapha Kemal Atatьrk, Turkish statesman, 1938; Dennis Wheatley, English novelist, 1979; Leonid Brezhnev, Soviet political leader, 1982; Gordon Richards, 1986. 11 November Feast day of St Martin of Tours, St Bartholomew of Grotta- ferata, St Mannas of Egypt, and St Theodore the Studite. 1918 The armis- tice was signed between the Allies and Germany in Compeigne, France, ef- fectively ending World War I. 1921 The British Legion held its first Poppy Day to raise money for wounded World War I veterans. 1940 The Wil- lys-Overland Company launched a four-wheel drive vehicle for the US Ar- my, named 'Jeep' after GP (general purpose). 1952 The first video recor- der was demonstrated in Beverly Hills, California, by its inventors John Mullin and Wayne Johnson. 1965 Ian Smith, Prime Minister of Rhodesia, unilaterally declared his country's independence from Britain. 1975 An- gola gained independence from Portugal. Born Louis Antoine de Bougain- ville, French navigator, 1729; Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky, Russian author, 1821; Edouard Vuillard, French painter, 1868; Kurt Vonnegut, US novelist, 1922; Bibi Andersson, Swedish film actress, 1935; Rodney Marsh, Australian cricketer, 1947. Died Sцren Kierkegaard, Danish philo- sopher, 1855; Ned Kelly, Australian outlaw, 1880; Edward German, English composer, 1936; Jerome Kern, US composer, 1945; Dimitri Tiomkin, US com- poser, 1979; Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Molotov, Russian leader, 1986. 12 November Feast day of St Benedict of Benevento, St Machar or Mochum- ma, St Astrik or Anastasius, St Nilus the Elder, St Cadwalader, St Lebu- in or Liafwine, St Cunibert, St Emilian Cucullatus, St Cumian the Tall, St Josephat of Polotsk, and St Livinus. 1660 English author John Bunyan was arrested for preaching without a license; refusing to give up preac- hing, he remained in jail for 12 years. 1847 The first public demonstra- tion of the use of chloroform as an anesthetic was given by James Simp- son, at the University of Edinburgh. 1859 Jules Lйotard, the daring young man on the flying trapeze, made his debut at the Cirque Napolйon, in Paris. 1912 The remains of English explorer Robert Scott and his com- panions were found in Antarctica. 1918 The Republic of Austria was dec- lared, thus ending the Hapsburg dynasty. 1944 The RAF bombed and sank the Tirpitz, the last of the major German battleships. 1974 For the first time since the 1840s, a salmon was caught in the Thames. 1981 The US shuttle Columbia became the first reusable crewed spacecraft, by ma- king its second trip. Born Alexander Borodin, Russian composer, 1833; Auguste Rodin, French sculptor, 1840; Sun Yat-sen, Chinese nationalist politician, 1866; Grace Kelly, Princess Grace of Monaco, 1929; Neil Young, Canadian rock singer and guitarist, 1946; Nadia Comaneci, Romani- an gymnast, 1961. Died Canute II (the Great), king of England and Den- mark, 1035; John Sylvan, French astronomer, 1793; Elizabeth Gaskell, English novelist, 1865; Percival Lowell, US astronomer, 1916; Baroness Orczy, English novelist, 1947; Rudolf Friml, US composer, 1972; H R Hal- deman, US political aide, 1993. 13 November Feast day of At Arcadius, St Didacus or Diego of Seville, St Abbo of Fleury, St Eugenius of Toledo, St Brice or Britius, St Homo- bonus, St Nicholas, pope, St Francis Xavia Cabrini, St Stanislaus Kost- ka, and St Maxellendis. 1002 The Massacre of the Danes in the southern counties of England took place by order of Ethelred II. 1851 The teleg- raph service between London and Paris began operating. 1907 The first helicopter rose 2 m/6.5 ft above ground in Normandy. 1914 US heiress Ma- ry Phelps Jacob patented a new female undergarment, known as the 'back- less brassiere'. 1916 In World War I, the Battle of Somme ended, having caused the deaths of some 60,000 allied soldiers. 1970 A cyclone and ti- dal waves struck East Pakistan, killing over 500,000 people. 1985 The Columbian volcano Nevado del Ruiz, dormant since 1845, erupted, killing over 20,000 people. 1987 With a view to encouraging 'safe sex', or AIDS prevention, the BBC screened Britain's first condom commercial (without a brand name). Born John Moore, British general, 1761; Charles Frederick Worth, English couturier, 1825; Robert Louis Stevenson, Scottish writer, 1850; Eugene Ionesco, French author and dramatist, 1912; Adrienne Corri, British actress, 1931; George Carey, archbishop of Canterbury, 1935. Di- ed Gioacchino Rossini, Italian composer, 1868; Camille Pissarro, French painter, 1903; Elsa Schiaparelli, Italian couturiиre, 1973; Vittorio de Sica, Italian film director, 1974; Chesney Allen, British comedian, 1982. 14 November Feast day of St Laurence O'Toole, St Adeotus Aribert, St Nicholas Tavelic, St Dubricius or Dyfrig, St Stephen of Como, and St Pe- ter of Narbonne. 1770 Scottish explorer James Bruce discovered the sour- ce of the Blue Nile in NE Ethiopia, then considered the main stream of the Nile. 1896 The speed limit for motor vehicles in Britain was raised from 4 mph to 14 mph. 1925 An exhibition of Surrealist art opened in Pa- ris, including works by Max Ernst, Man Ray, Joan Mirу, and Pablo Picas- so. 1940 Enemy bombing destroyed Coventry's medieval cathedral. 1952 Britain's first pop singles chart was published by New Musical Express. 1963 The island of Surtsey off Iceland was 'born' by the eruption of an underwater volcano. 1973 Bobby Moore made his 108th (and final) interna- tional appearance for England, against Italy at Wembley. 1991 Prince Si- hanouk, Cambodia's former head of state, returned to Phnom Penh after nearly 13 years in exile to head the country's interim government. Born Robert Fulton, US engineer, 1765; Claude Monet, French painter, 1840; Jawaarlal Nehru, Indian statesman, 1889; Aaron Copland, US composer, 1889; Elisabeth Frink, English sculptor, 1930; King Hussein of Jordan, 1935; HRH the Prince of Wales, 1948. Died Nell Gwyn, English actress and mistress of Charles II, 1687; Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, German philo- sopher, 1716; Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, German philosopher, 1831; Booker T Washington, US educator, 1915; Manuel de Falla, Spanish compo- ser, 1946; Tony Richardson, British director, 1991. 15 November Feast day of St Leopold of Austria, Saints Abibus, Gurias, and Samonas, St Fintan of Rheinau, St Malo or Machutus, St Albert the Great, and St Desiderius or Didier of Cahors. 1837 Pitman's system of shorthand was published, under the title Stenographic Sound-Hand. 1889 Dom Pedro was overthrown, and Brazil was proclaimed a republic. 1899 Winston Churchill was captured by the Boers while covering the war as a reporter for the Morning Post. 1956 Love Me Tender, the first film star- ring Elvis Presley, premiered in New York. 1968 The Cunard liner Queen Elizabeth ended its final transatlantic journey. 1983 An independent Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus was unilaterally proclaimed, recog- nized only by Turkey. 1985 UK and Irish premiers, Margaret Thatcher and Garret Fitzerald, signed the Anglo-Irish Agreement in Dublin. 1991 In the wake of increased sectarian violence in Northern Ireland, Britain called up 1,400 reserve troops for full-time active duty. Born William Pitt the Elder, British statesman, 1708; William Herschel, English ast- ronomer, 1738; Erwin Rommel, German field marshal, 1891; Averell Harri- man, US diplomat, 1891; Petula Clark, British singer and actress, 1934; Daniel Barenboim, Israeli pianist and conductor, 1942. Died George Rom- ney, English painter, 1802; Henryk Sienkiewicz, Polish novelist, 1916; Lionel Barrymore, US actor, 1954; Tyrone Power, US film actor, 1958; Je- an Gabin, French actor, 1976; Margaret Mead, US anthropologist, 1978; Luciano Liggio, Italian racketeer, 1993. 16 November Feast day of St Margaret of Scotland, St Agnes of Assisi, St Gertrude of Helfta, St Afan, St Edmund of Abingdon, St Mechtildis of Helfta, St Nikon 'Metanoeite', and St Eucherius of Lyons. 1824 Australi- an explorer Hamilton Hume discovered the Murray River, the longest river in Australia. 1869 The Suez Canal, which had taken ten years to build, was formally opened. 1913 The first volume of Remembrance of Things Past, the classic autobiographical novel by Marcel Proust, was published in Paris. 1918 Hungary achieved independence from the Austro-Hungarian empire and was proclaimed a republic. 1928 In London, UK, obscenity charges were brought against Radclyffe Hall's crusading lesbian novel The Well of Loneliness. 1965 The USSR launched Venus III, an uncrewed spacecraft that successfully landed on Venus. 1993 Amid the tears of its employees and sympathisers, Vladimir Lenin's mausoleum was closed by the Russian authorities; it was the first site in Moscow linked to Lenin to be shut down. Born Tiberius, Roman emperor, 42 BC; John Bright, British political reformer, 1811; William Frend de Morgan, English artist and novelist, 1839; George S Kaufman, US dramatist, 1889; Willie Carson, English jockey, 1942; Frank Bruno, British boxer, 1961. Died King Henry III, 1272; Jack Sheppard, English highwayman, 1724; Louis Riel, Canadian leader of the Mйtis rebellion, 1885; Clark Gable, US fim actor, 1960; William Holden, US film actor, 1981; Arthur Askey, English comedian, 1983. 17 November Feast day of St Hilda, Saints Acisclus and Victoria, St Anianus or Aignan of Orlйans, Saints Alphaeus and Zachaeus, St Elizabeth of Hungary, St Gregory of Tours, St Gregory the Wonderworker, St Diony- sius of Alexandria, The Martyrs of Paraguay, and St Hugh of Lincoln. 1800 The US Congress met for the first time, in Washington DC. 1880 The first three British women to graduate received their Bachelor of Arts degrees from the University of London. 1922 The last sultan of Turkey was deposed by Kemal Atatьrk. 1922 Siberia voted for union with the USSR. 1970 The USSR's Luna 17 landed on the Sea of Rains on the moon, and released the first moonwalker vehicle. 1970 Stephanie Rahn became the Sun newspaper's first Page Three girl. 1988 Benazir Bhutto was elec- ted prime minister of Pakistan, becoming the first female leader of a Muslim state. 1991 The US Congress endorsed NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) between US, Canada and Mexico. Born Louis XVIII, King of France, 1755; Bernard Law Montgomery, British field-marshal, 1887; Charles Mackerras, Australian conductor, 1925; Rock Hudson, US film ac- tor, 1925; Peter Cook, English writer and entertainer, 1937; Martin Scorsese, US film director, 1942. Died Pico della Mirandola, Italian philosopher, 1497; Mary I, Queen of England, 1558; Robert Owen, British socialist, 1856; Auguste Rodin, French sculptor, 1917; Heitor Villa-Lo- bos, Brazilian composer, 1959; Gladys Cooper, English actress, 1971. 18 November Feast day of St Odo of Cluny, St Romanus of Antioch, and St Mawes or Maudez. 1477 William Caxton's The Dictes or Sayinges of the Philosophres was published - the first printed book in England bearing a date. 1626 St Peter's in Rome was consecrated. 1918 Latvia was proclai- med an independent republic. 1928 The first experimental sound cartoon, Steamboat Willie, starring Mickey Mouse, was screened in the US. 1977 President Anwar Sadat became the first Egyptian leader to visit Israel and to address the Knesset (parliament). 1987 A fire broke out at Lon- don's King's Cross underground station, killing 30 people. 1991 The Shi- ite Muslim faction Islamic Jihad freed Church of England envoy Terry Wa- ite (held since Jan 1987) and US university professor Thomas Sutherland (held since June 1985). Born Carl von Weber, German composer, 1786; Lo- uis Daguerre, French photographic pioneer, 1789; W S Gilbert, English dramatist and librettist, 1836; Ignacy Padereweski, Polish pianist, com- poser and statesman, 1860; Alan Shepard, US astronaut, 1923; David Hem- mings, English and director, 1941. Died Chester Alan Arthur, 21st US president, 1886; Marcel Proust, French author, 1922; Niels Henrik Bohr, Danish physicist, 1962; Joseph Kennedy, US financier and diplomat, 1969; Gustбv Husбk, Czech politician, 1991. 19 November Feast day of St Ermenburga, St Barlaam of Antioch, and St Nerses I. 1493 On his second voyage to the New World, Columbus discove- red Puerto Rico. 1850 Alfred Tennyson was appointed Poet Laureate. 1863 President Lincoln delivered his famous Gettysburg address, after the American Civil War. 1942 The Red Army counter-attacked and surrounded the German army at Stalingrad. 1969 Brazilian footballer Pelй scored his 1,000th goal in his 909th first class match. 1987 A record price for a automobile was reached when a 1931 Bugatti Royale was sold at auction for Ј5.5 million. Born Charles I, King of England and Scotland, 1600; Ferdinand de Lesseps, French engineer, 1805; Anton Walbrook, German ac- tor, 1900; Indira Gandhi, Indian stateswoman, 1917; Calvin Klein, US fashion designer, 1942; Jodie Foster, US actress, 1963. Died Nicolas Po- ussin, French painter, 1665; Thomas Shadwell, English dramatist and po- et, 1692; Franz Schubert, Austrian composer, 1828; William Siemens, Ger- man metallurgist, 1883; Basil Spence, British architect, 1976; Christina Onassis, Greek shipowner, 1988. 20 November Feast day of St Edmund the Martyr, St Maxentia of Beauvais, St Nerses of Sahgerd, St Bernward, St Felix of Valois, and St Dasius. 1759 The British fleet under Admiral Hawke defeated the French at the Battle of Quiberon Bay, thwarting an invasion of England. 1818 Simуn Bolнvar, known as 'the Liberator', declared Venezuela to be independent of Spain. 1917 The Battle of Cambrai began, in which the British deployed large numbers of tanks for the first time. 1944 The lights of Piccadilly, the Strand, and Fleet Street were switched back on after five years of blackout. 1945 The Nuremberg trials of 24 chief Nazi war criminals by an international military tribunal began. 1979 Anthony Blunt, Surveyor of the Queen's Pictures, was stripped of his knighthood when his past work as a double agent was made public. 1980 The Solar Challenger was flown for the first time, entirely under solar power. Born Edwin Powell Hubble, US astronomer, 1889; Alexandra Danilova, Russian ballerina and choreographer, 1906; Alistair Cooke, English, journalist and broadcaster, 1908; Dulcie Gray, English actress, 1920, Nadine Gordimer, South African novelist, 1923; Robert Kennedy, US politician, 1925. Died Anton Rubinstein, Russian pianist and composer, 1894; Leo Tolstoy, Russian novelist, 1910; Queen Alexandra, consort of Edward VII, 1925; John Rushworth Jellicoe, British admiral, 1935; Francis William Aston, English physicist, 1945; Francisco Franco, Spanish dictator, 1975. 21 November Feast day of St Geasius, pope, and St Albert of Louvain. 1783 Franзois de Rozier and the Marquis d'Arlandres made the first human flight when they lifted off from the Bois de Boulogne, Paris, in a hot-air balloon built by the Montgolfier brothers. 1918 The German High Seas Fleet surrendered to the Allies. 1934 Cole Porter's Anything Goes was first performed in New York. 1953 The discovery of the Piltdown Man skull by Charles Dawson in Sussex, England, in 1912 was finally revealed as a hoax. 1974 In Birmingham, 20 people were killed and 200 injured by IRA bomb explosions. 1990 Leaders of NATO and Warsaw Pact member states signed the Charter of Paris and a treaty on Conventional Forces in Euro- pe, bringing an end to the Cold War. Born Voltaire, French philosopher and writer, 1694; Harpo Marx, US comedian, 1888; Renй Magritte, Belgian painter, 1898; Coleman Hawkins, US jazz saxophonist, 1904; Natalia Maka- rova, Russian ballerina, 1940; Goldie Hawn, US film actress, 1945. Died Henry Purcell, English composer, 1695; James Hogg, Scottish novelist and poet, 1835; Franz Josef I, Emperor of Austria, 1916; James Hertzog, So- uth African politician, 1942; Venkata Raman, Indian physicist, 1970. 22 November National Day of Lebanon. Feast day of St Cecilia or Cecily, and Saints Philemon and Apphia. 1497 Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope in his search for a route to India. 1938 The first coelacanth, a prehistoric fish believed to be extinct, was ca- ught off the South African coast. 1946 Biro ball point pens went on sale in Britain, invented by Hungarian journalist Lбszlу Biro. 1956 The 16th Olympic Games opened in Melbourne. 1963 John F Kennedy, 35th US presi- dent, was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, allegedly by Lee Harvey Oswald. 1975 Two days after the death of General Franco, Juan Carlos I was sworn in as King of Spain. 1986 Mike Tyson, aged 20, defeated Trevor Berbick in Las Vegas, becoming the youngest-ever heavyweight boxing champion. 1990 Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, who had led Britain since 1979, announced her resignation. Born George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans), English novelist, 1819; Wassily Kandinsky, Russian painter, 1866; Andrй Gide, French author, 1869; Charles de Gaulle, French statesman, 1890; Benjamin Britten, English composer, 1913; Billie Jean King, US tennis champion, 1943; Boris Becker, German tennis champion, 1967. Died Edward Teach (Blackbeard the pirate), English navigator, 1718; Robert Clive, British general and administrator, 1774; Arthur Sullivan, English composer, 1900; Jack London, US novelist, 1916; Mae West, US film actress, 1980; Sterling Holloway, US film actor, 1992. 23 November Feast day of St Clement I, pope, St Alexander, prince, St Columbanus, St Amphilochius, St Trudo or Trond, St Gregory of Girgenti, and St Felicitas. 1670 Moliиre's Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme was performed for the first time in Paris. 1852 Britain's first pillar boxes were erected, at St Helier, Jersey. 1889 The first juke box was installed in the Palais Royal Saloon in San Francisco. 1906 Italian operatic tenor Enrico Caruso was fined $10 for sexual harassment. 1921 US President Warren Harding banned doctors from prescribing beer, eliminating a loop- hole in the prohibition law. 1963 The first episode of the British BBC TV serial Dr Who was broadcast, with William Hartnell as Dr Who and Anna Ford as his female companion. 1980 A violent earthquake struck Southern Italy, killing over 4,000 people. Born Billy the Kid, US outlaw, 1859; Manuel de Falla, Spanish composer, 1876; Boris Karloff, English film ac- tor, 1887; Michael Gough, English actor, 1917; Lew Hoad, Australian ten- nis player, 1934; Shane Gould, Australian swimmer, 1956. Died Abbй Prйvost, French author, 1763; Dr Hawley Harvey Crippen, US murderer, executed, 1910; Arthur Wing Pinero, British dramatist, 1934; P C Wren, British novelist, 1941; Andrй Malraux, French novelist, 1976; Merle Obe- ron, British film actress, 1979. 24 November Feast day of Saints Flora and Mary, St Chrysogonus, and St Colman of Cloyne. 1642 Dutch navigator Abel Tasman discovered Van Die- men's Land which he named for his captain, but it was later renamed Tas- mania. 1859 Darwin's The Origin of Species was published. 1963 Lee Har- vey Oswald, charged with the assassination of John F Kennedy, was shot while in police custody by Jack Ruby, a stripclub owner. 1989 Czech po- litician Alexander Dubcek made his first public appearance in over 20 years, speaking at a pro-democracy rally in Prague. 1993 The last 14 bottles of Scotch whiskey salvaged from the SS Politician, wrecked in 1941 and the inspiration of the book and film, Whisky Galore, were sold at auction for Ј11,462 at Christie's. Born Baruch Spinoza, Dutch philo- sopher, 1632; Laurence Sterne, Irish novelist, 1713; Henri de Toulou- se-Lautrec, French painter, 1864; Scott Joplin, US ragtime pianist and composer, 1868; Billy Connolly, Scottish comedian, 1942; Ian Botham, English cricketer, 1955. Died John Knox, Scottish religious reformer, 1572; Erskine Childers, Irish nationalist and novelist, 1922; Georges Clemenceau, French statesman, 1929; George Raft, US film actor, 1980; Freddie Mercury, English rock singer, 1991; Anthony Burgess, British no- velist and critic, 1993. 25 November Feast day of St Moses the Martyr and St Mercurius of Caesa- rea. 1884 Evaporated milk was patented by John Mayenberg of St Louis, Missouri. 1937 An inter-regional spelling competition became the first British quiz program to be broadcast. 1941 HMS Barham was sunk, with the loss of 868 lives. 1952 The longest-running play, The Mousetrap by Agat- ha Christie, opened in London, at the Ambassador's Theatre. 1969 In pro- test against Britain's involvement in Biafra and support of US involve- ment in Vietnam, John Lennon returned his MBE. 1975 Surinam, formerly called Dutch Guiana, became a fully independent republic. 1991 Winston Silcott became the first of the 'Tottenham Three', convicted for the 1985 killing of a policeman in Tottenham, North London, UK, to have his conviction overturned. Born Andrew Carnegie, US industrialist and phi- lanthropist, 1835; Carl Benz, German engineer and automobile manufactu- rer, 1844; Augusto Pinochet, Chilean dictator, 1915; Ricardo Montalban, US film actor, 1920; Imran Khan Niaz, Pakistani cricketer, 1952. Died Isaac Watts, English hymn writer, 1748; Bojangles (Bill Robinson), US tapdancer and entertainer, 1949; Myra Hess, British pianist, 1965; Upton Sinclair, US novelist, 1968; Yukio Mishima, Japanese novelist, 1970; An- ton Dolin, British dancer and choreographer, 1983. 26 November Feast day of St Conrad of Constance, St Peter of Alexand- ria, St John Berchmans, St Basolus or Basle, St Siricius, St Leonard of Porto Maurizio, and St Silvester Gozzolini. 1703 England was hit by se- vere gales, known as the Great Storm, in which 8,000 people died. 1789 The American Thanksgiving was celebrated nationally for the first time. 1906 President Theodore Roosevelt returned to Washington after a trip to Central America, becoming the first US president to travel abroad while in office. 1942 The Soviet forces counter-attacked at Stalingrad, ending the siege and forcing General von Paulus's Sixth Army to retreat. 1949 India became a federal republic within the Commonwealth. 1966 French President Charles de Gaulle opened the world's first tidal power station in Brittany. 1990 Lee Kuan Yew, Singapore's prime minister for 31 years, announced that he was stepping down. Born William Cowper, English poet, 1731; William George Armstrong, English inventor, 1810; Emlyn Williams, Welsh actor and dramatist, 1905; Cyril Cusack, Irish actor, 1910; Char- les Schultz, US cartoonist, 1922; Tina Turner, US rock singer, 1938. Di- ed Isabella I, Queen of Castile and Aragon, 1504; John McAdam, Scottish engineer, 1836; Nicolas Soult, French general, 1851; Leander Jameson, British colonial administrator, 1917; Tommy Dorsey, US trombonist and bandleader, 1956; Arnold Zweig, German novelist, 1968. 27 November Feast day of St James Intercisus, St Cungar of Somerset, Saints Barlaam and Josaphat, St Maximus of Riez, St Fergus of Strathern, St Virgil of Salzburg, and St Secundinus or Sechnall. 1095 Pope Urban began to preach the First Crusade at Clermont, France. 1582 William Sha- kespeare, aged 18, married Anne Hathaway. 1914 Britain's first policewo- men went on duty, at Grantham, Lincolnshire. 1940 In Romania, the pro-fascist group Iron Guard murdered 64 people, including former prime minister Jorga. 1967 French President Charles de Gaulle rejected British entry into the Common Market. 1970 The Gay Liberation Front held its first demonstration in London, UK. Born Anders Celsius, Swedish astrono- mer and thermometer inventor, 1701; Fanny Kemble, English actress, 1809; Chaim Weizmann, Israeli chemist and Zionist leader, 1874; Konosuke Mat- sushita, Japanese industrialist, 1894; Alexander Dubcek, Czech states- man, 1920; Jimi Hendrix, US guitarist and singer, 1942. Died Horace, Ro- man poet, 8 BC; Alexandre Dumas fils, French novelist and dramatist, 1895; Eugene O'Neill, US dramatist, 1953; Arthur Honegger, Swiss compo- ser, 1955; Ross McWhirter, British editor, 1975. 28 November Feast day of St Stephen the Younger, St Catherine Labourй, St Simeon Metaphrastes, St James of the March, and St Joseph Pignatelli. 1520 Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan sailed through the Straits at the tip of South America and reached an ocean which he named the Pa- cific. 1660 The Royal Society was chartered in London, UK. 1905 The Irish political party Sinn Fein was founded by Arthur Griffith in Dub- lin. 1909 In France, a law was passed allowing women eight weeks' mater- nity leave. 1948 Edwin Land's first polaroid cameras went on sale in Boston. 1960 Mauritania gained independence. 1978 Amid growing fundamen- talist opposition, the Iranian government banned religious rallies. 1993 The Northern Ireland peace process and Prime Minister John Major's cre- dibility were dealt a blow when secret government contacts with the IRA were publicly disclosed. Born Jean Baptiste Lully, Italian/French compo- ser, 1632; William Blake, English poet and artist, 1757; Friedrich En- gels, German Socialist, 1820; Alberto Moravia, Italian writer, 1907; Claude Lйvi-Strauss, French anthropologist, 1908; Randy Newman, US sin- ger and songwriter, 1943. Died Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini, Italian sculp- tor, 1680; Washington Irving, US author, 1859; Enrico Fermi, Italian physicist, 1954; Enid Blyton, English children's book author, 1968; Ken- neth Connor, English actor, 1993. 29 November Feast day of St Radbod, St Brendan of Birr, St Saturninus, martyr, and St Saturninus or Sernin of Toulouse. 1864 The Sand Creek massacre took place when over 150 Cheyenne and Arapaho Indians - who had surrendered and were disarmed - were killed by US cavalry. 1929 US Admi- ral Richard Byrd became the first man to fly over the South Pole, with his pilot Bernt Balchen. 1932 Cole Porter's The Gay Divorcee, starring Fred Astaire, was first performed in New York. 1945 Yugoslavia was proc- laimed a Federal People's Republic, under Tito's leadership. 1947 The UN approved Britain's plan for a partition of Palestine. 1990 The UN Secu- rity Council, at the urging of the US, authorized the use of force aga- inst Iraq if it did not withdraw totally from Kuwait by 15 January 1991. Born Gaetano Donizetti, Italian composer, 1797; Christian Johann Dopp- ler, Austrian physicist, 1803; Louisa May Alcott, US author, 1832; C S Lewis, English scholar and writer, 1898; Jacques Chirac, French states- man, 1932; John Mayall, British vocalist and guitarist, 1949. Died Tho- mas Wolsey, English cardinal and politician, 1530; Maria Theresa, Emp- ress of Austria. 1780; Giacomo Puccini, Italian composer, 1924; Graham Hill, English racing driver, 1975; Natalie Wood, US film actress, 1981; Ralph Bellamy, US film actor, 1991. 30 November National Day of Scotland. Feast day of St Andrew the Apost- le, St Sapor, and St Cuthbert Mayne. 1840 Napoleon I's remains were re- turned from St Helena to Paris. 1872 The first international football match was played, Scotland v England (drawing 0-0). 1914 Charlie Chaplin made his film debut in Making a Living, a Mack Sennett one-reeler, wit- hout his trademark moustache and cane. 1936 The Crystal Palace at Syden- ham, designed by Joseph Paxton and originally constructed in Hyde Park to house the Great Exhibition of 1851, burned down. 1939 The USSR inva- ded Finland. 1988 PLO leader Yasser Arafat attempted to enter the US to address the UN General Assembly, but was refused a visa. Born Andrea Palladio, Italian architect, 1508; Philip Sidney, English poet and sol- dier, 1554; Jonathan Swift, Irish author, 1667; Mark Twain, US author, 1835; Winston Churchill, British statesman, 1874; Gary Lineker, English footballer, 1960. Died Oscar Wilde, Irish dramatist, 1900; Edward John Eyre, Australian explorer, 1901; Beniamino Gigli, Italian operatic te- nor, 1957; Zeppo Marx, US actor and comedian, 1979; Cary Grant, US film actor, 1986; James Baldwin, US writer, 1987. 1 December World Aids Day. Feast day of St Edmund Campion, St Agericus or Airy, St Eligius or Elroy, St Alexander Briant, St Anasanus, St Tud- wal, and St Ralph Sherwin. 1640 The Spanish were driven out of Portugal and the country regained its independence. 1919 US-born Lady Nancy Astor became the first woman to take her seat in the House of Commons, as MP for the Sutton division of Plymouth. 1925 The Locarno Pact was signed in London, guaranteeing peace and frontiers in Europe. 1939 Gone with the Wind premiered in New York. 1941 Japanese warplanes launched a surprise attack on the US Pacific Fleet in their home base at Pearl Harbor, for- cing the US to enter WWII. 1942 The Beveridge Report on Social Security, which formed the basis of the welfare state in Britain, was issued. 1953 The first issue of Hugh Heffner's Playboy magazine was published; the center-spread nude featured Marilyn Monroe. 1989 Pope John Paul II and Mikhail Gorbachev met in Rome, ending 70 years of hostility between the Vatican and the USSR. 1991 France won its first Davis Cup tennis title in 59 years by defeating the US at the finals in Lyons, France. Born Ma- dame Tussaud, French wax-modeler, 1761; Alicia Markova, British ballet dancer, 1910; Woody Allen, US film actor, writer and director, 1935; Lee Trevino, US golfer, 1939; Richard Pryor, US comedian and actor, 1940; Bette Midler, US comedienne and singer, 1945. Died King Henry I, 1135; Lorenzo Ghiberti, Italian sculptor and goldsmith, 1455; Vincent d'Indy, French composer, 1931; J B S Haldane, English scientist and writer, 1964; David Ben Gurion, Israeli statesman, 1973; James Baldwin, US wri- ter, 1987. 2 December Feast day of St Chromatius of Aquilea, St Silvanus of Cons- tantinople, St Nonnus and St Bibiana or Viviana. 1697 The rebuilt St Pa- ul's Cathedral, work of Sir Christopher Wren, was opened. 1805 Napoleon (crowned Emperor exactly one year earlier) defeated the Austrians and Russians at the Battle of Austerlitz. 1823 US President James Monroe proclaimed the Monroe Doctrine, warning that any further European colo- nial ambitions in the western hemisphere would be considered threats to US peace and security. 1901 In the US, King Camp Gillette patented a sa- fety razor with a double-edged disposable blade. 1942 The first nuclear chain reaction took place at the University of Chicago, under physicists Enrico Fermi and Arthur Compton. 1988 In Bangladesh, a cyclone killed thousands of people and left five million homeless. 1990 West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl was elected chancellor of a united Germany. 1993 Colombian drugs baron Pablo Escobar was shot dead. Born Georges Seurat, French painter, 1859; Ruth Draper, US entertainer, 1884; John Barbirol- li, English conductor, 1899; Peter Carl Goldmark, US inventor of the LP record, 1906; Maria Callas, US lyric soprano, 1923; Alexander Haig, US general and politician. Died Hernбndo Cortйs, Spanish conquistador, 1547; Gerhardt Mercator, Belgian cartographer, 1594; Marquis de Sade, French writer and philosopher, 1814; John Brown, US abolitionist, 1859; Philip Larkin, English poet, 1985; Aaron Copland, US composer, 1990; Pablo Escobar, Colombian racketeer, 1993. 3 December Feast day of Saints Claudius, Hilaria and their Companions, St Birinus, St Lucius of Britain, St Cassian of Tangier, and St Francis Xavier. 1810 The British captured Mauritius from the French. 1910 Neon lighting was displayed for the first time at the Paris Motor Show. 1917 The Quebec Bridge, the world's longest cantilever, over the St Lawrence River, was opened - 87 lives were lost during its construction. 1961 At the Museum of Modern Art in New York, Henri Matisse's painting Le Bate- au, which had been hanging upside-down for 46 days, was hung the right way up. 1967 At Groote Schurr Hospital, Cape Town, Dr Christiaan Barnard carried out the world's first heart transplant. 1984 A chemical leakage at a pesticide factory in Bhopal, India caused the deaths of over 2,500 people and blinded many thousands. Born Niccolт Amati, Italian vio- lin-maker, 1596; Joseph Conrad, British novelist, 1857; Anton von We- bern, Austrian composer, 1883; Andy Williams, US singer, 1930; Jean-Luc Godard, French film director, 1930; Franz Klammer, Austrian skier, 1953. Died Frederick VI, King of Denmark, 1839; Robert Louis Stevenson, Scot- tish novelist, 1894; Mary Baker Eddy, US founder of Christian Science, 1910; Pierre Auguste Renoir, French painter, 1919; Oswald Mosley, Eng- lish fascist leader, 1980; Lewis Thomas, US physician and biologist, 1993; Frank Zappa, US composer and guitarist, 1993. 4 December Feast day of St Maruthas, St Bernard of Parma, St Sola, St Osmund, St Anno, St Barbara, virgin-martyr, and St John of Damascus. 1154 The only Englishman to become a pope, Nicholas Breakspear, became Adrian IV. 1791 Britain's oldest Sunday paper, the Observer, was first published. 1798 William Pitt the Younger first introduced income tax in Britain, to finance the wars with revolutionary France. 1808 Napoleon abolished the Inquisition in Spain. 1829 Under British rule, suttee (whereby a widow commits suicide by joining her husband's funeral pyre) was made illegal in India. 1947 The first performance of Tennessee Wil- liams' A Streetcar Named Desire starring Marlon Brando and Jessica Tan- dy, in New York. 1961 Birth control pills became available on the NHS. 1991 News correspondent Terry Anderson, the longest-held Western hostage in Lebanon (2,454 days in captivity), was freed by Islamic Jihad. Born Thomas Carlyle, Scottish author, 1795; Edith Cavell, English nurse, 1865; Rainer Maria Rilke, German poet, 1875; Francisco Franco, Spanish dictator, 1892; Ronnie Corbett, British comedian, 1930; Jeff Bridges, US film actor, 1949. Died Cardinal Richelieu, French politician, 1642; John Gay, English poet and dramatist, 1732; Luigi Galvani, Italian physiolo- gist, 1798; Jack Payne, British bandleader, 1969; Benjamin Britten, Eng- lish composer, 1976. 5 December National Day of Thailand. Feast day of St Christian, St Sa- bas, St Justinian or Iestin, St Crispina, St Nicetius of Trier, St Sigi- ramnus or Cyran, and St John Almond. 1766 James Christie, founder of the famous auctioneers, held his first sale in London, UK. 1904 The Russian fleet was destroyed by the Japanese at Port Arthur, during the Russo-Ja- panese War. 1908 The first American football game in which players were numbered was played, at Pittsburgh. 1933 Prohibition was repealed in the US after more than 13 years. 1958 Britain's first expressway, the Pres- ton by-pass, was opened by Prime Minister Macmillan. 1993 The single by Mr Blobby, a pink and yellow spotted BBC television star, reached number one in the British charts. Born Christina Georgina Rossetti, English po- et, 1830; Fritz Lang, Austrian film director, 1890; Walt Disney, US filmmaker and animator, 1901; Otto Preminger, Austrian film director, 1906; Little Richard, US rock 'n' roll pioneer, 1935; Josй Carreras, Spanish operatic tenor, 1946. Died Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Austrian composer, 1791; Alexandre Dumas pиre, French novelist, 1870; Henry Tate, English businessman and philanthropist, 1899; Claude Monet, French pain- ter, 1926; Jan Kubelik, Czech violinist, 1940; Robert Aldrich, US film director, 1983. 6 December National Day of Finland. Feast day of St Gertrude the Elder, St Abraham of Kratia, St Nicholas of Bari, St Asella, and Saints Diony- sia, Majoricus and their Companions. 1492 Columbus discovered Hispanio- la, now Haiti and the Dominican Republic. 1774 Austria became the first nation to introduce a state education system. 1877 With a recording of himself reciting Mary Had a Little Lamb Thomas Edison demonstrated the first phonograph, in New Jersey, US. 1907 In Monongah, West Virginia 361 people were killed in America's worst mine disaster. 1917 Finland proc- laimed independence from Russia. 1921 The Irish Free State was formally created, as a result of the Anglo-Irish Treaty. 1926 Mussolini introdu- ced a tax on bachelors. 1990 Saddam Hussein announced that he would free all of the 2,000 foreign hostages held in Iraq and occupied Kuwait. Born King Henry VI, 1421; George Monck, English admiral, 1608; Warren Has- tings, British administrator, 1732; Osbert Sitwell, English writer, 1892; Ira Gershwin, US lyricist, 1896; Dave Brubeck, US jazz musician, 1920. Died Jean-Baptiste-Simйon Chardin, French painter, 1779; Madame du Barry, mistress of King Louis XV of France, 1793; Anthony Trollope, Eng- lish novelist, 1882; Ernst Werner von Siemens, German inventor, 1892; Roy Orbison, US singer and songwriter, 1988. 7 December Feast day of St Martin of Saujon, St Ambrose of Milan, St Eutychianus, St Servus, and St Buithe or Boethius. 1431 In Paris, Henry VI of England was crowned King of France. 1732 The original Covent Gar- den Theatre Royal (now the Royal Opera House) was opened. 1787 Delaware became the first of the United States. 1907 At London's National Spor- ting Club, Eugene Corri became the first referee to officiate from insi- de a boxing ring. 1941 The Japanese attacked the US fleet in Pearl Har- bor. 1982 The first execution by lethal injection took place at Fort Worth Prison, Texas. 1988 An earthquake in Armenia killed thousands and caused widespread destruction. 1990 A week-long succession of violent clashes between Hindus and Muslims in several Indian cities began, re- sulting in about 300 deaths and 3,000 arrests. Born Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini, Italian sculptor, 1598; Pietro Mascagni, Italian composer, 1863; Eli Wallach, US film actor, 1915; Mario Soares, Portuguese politi- cian, 1924; Ellen Burstyn, US actress, 1932; Geoff Lawson, Australian cricketer, 1958. Died Cicero, Roman orator, 43 BC; William Bligh, capta- in of the Bounty, 1817; Ferdinand de Lesseps, French engineer, 1894; Kirsten Flagstad, Norwegian operatic soprano, 1962; Thornton Wilder, US novelist, 1975; Robert Graves, English poet and author, 1985; Wolfgang Paul, German nuclear physicist, 1993. 8 December Feast day of the Immaculate Conception, St Romaric, St Euc- harius, St Sophronius of Cyprus, and St Patapius. 1854 Pope Pius IX dec- lared the dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary to be an article of faith. 1863 Tom King of England defeated American John Heenan, becoming the first world heavyweight champion. 1941 The US, Britain, and Australia declared war on Japan, one day after the attack on Pearl Harbor. 1980 John Lennon was shot dead in New York. 1987 US President Reagan and Soviet President Gorbachev signed the Intermediate Nuclear Forces treaty in Washington, DC, the first nuclear arms reducti- on agreement. 1991 The leaders of Russia, Byelorussia, and the Ukraine signed an agreement forming a 'Commonwealth of Independent States' to replace the USSR; the decision was denounced by President Gorbachev as unconstitutional. Born Horace, Roman poet, 65 BC; Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, 1542; Bjцrnstjerne Bjцrnson, Norwegian poet and dramatist, 1832; James Thurber, US wit and cartoonist, 1894; Sammy Davis Jr, US singer, actor, and dancer, 1925; Jim Morrison, US singer, 1943. Died Thomas de Quincey, English author, 1859; Herbert Spencer, British philosopher and writer, 1903; Simon Marks, English retailer, 1964; Golda Meir, Israeli politician, 1978; John Lennon, British rock singer and songwriter, 1980. 9 December National Day of Tanzania. Feast day of The Seven Martyrs of Samosata, St Peter Fourier, St Budoc or Beuzec, St Gorgonia, and St Leo- cadia. 1783 The first executions at Newgate Prison took place. 1868 Gladstone was elected prime minister of Britain, beginning the first of his four terms. 1917 The British captured Jerusalem from the Turks, du- ring World War I. 1955 Sugar Ray Robinson knocked out Carl Olson, regai- ning his world middleweight boxing title. 1960 The first episode of Co- ronation Street was screened on ITV. 1987 The first martyrs of the 'in- tifada' in the Gaza Strip were created when an Israeli patrol attacked the Jabaliya refugee camp. 1990 Lech Walesa, leader of the once-outlawed Solidarity labor movement, was elected president of Poland. Born John Milton, English poet, 1608; Clarence Birdseye, US inventor of deep-free- zing process, 1886; Douglas Fairbanks Jr, US film actor, 1909; Kirk Do- uglas, US film actor, 1918; Robert Hawke, Australian politician, 1929; Joan Armatrading, English singer and songwriter, 1950. Died Anthony Van Dyck, Flemish painter, 1641; Joseph Bramah, English inventor of the hyd- raulic press, 1814; Juan de la Cierva, Spanish engineer, 1963; Edith Sitwell, English poet and author, 1964; Karl Barth, Swiss theologian, 1968; Bernice Abbott, US photographer, 1991; Danny Blanchflower, Irish footballer, 1993. 10 December Feast day of St Gregory, pope, St Edmund Gerhings, St Eus- tace White, St John Roberts, St Eulalia of Merida, St Swithin Wells, Sa- ints Mannas, Hermogenes and Eugrphus, St Polydore Plaaden, and St Melc- hiades or Miltiades. 1768 The Royal Academy of Arts was founded in Lon- don by George III, with Joshua Reynolds as its first president. 1845 Pneumatic tires were patented by Scottish civil engineer Robert Thomp- son. 1898 Cuba became independent of Spain following the Spanish-Ameri- can War. 1901 Nobel Prizes were first awarded. 1941 The Royal Naval battleships Prince of Wales and Repulse were sunk by Japanese aircraft in the Battle of Malaya. The leaders of the 12 EC nations ended their two-day summit and agreed on the treaty of Maastricht, pledging closer political and economic union. Born Cйsar Franck, Belgian composer, 1822; Emily Dickinson, US poet, 1830; William Plomer, South African author, 1903; Olivier Messiaen, French composer and organist, 1908; Dorothy La- mour, US film actress, 1914; Kenneth Branagh, British actor and direc- tor, 1960. Died Paolo Uccello, Italian painter, 1475; Leopold I, King of the Belgians, 1865; Alfred Nobel, Swedish industrialist and philathro- pist, 1896; Damon Runyon, US writer, 1946; Otis Redding, US soul singer and songwriter, 1967; Jascha Heifetz, US violinist, 1987. 11 December Feast day of St Daniel the Stylite, St Damasus, pope, Sain- ts Fuscianus, Victoricus and Gentianus, and St Barsabas. 1769 Edward Be- ran of London, UK, patented venetian blinds. 1844 Nitrous oxide, or la- ughing gas, was first used for a tooth extraction. 1894 The first motor show opened in Paris, with nine exhibitors. 1941 Germany and Italy dec- lared war on the US. 1987 Charlie Chaplin's trademark cane and bowler hat were sold at Christie's for #є2,500. 1991 Salman Rushdie, under an Islamic death sentence for blasphemy, made his first public appearance since 1989 in New York, at a dinner marking the 200th anniversary of the First Amendment (which guarantees freedom of speech). Born Pope Leo X, 1475; Hector Berlioz, French composer, 1803; Carlo Ponti, Italian film director and producer, 1913; Alexander Solzhenitsyn, Russian author, 1918; Kenneth MacMillan, Scottish choreographer, 1929; Brenda Lee, US pop singer, 1944. Died Llewlyn ap Gruffydd, last native Prince of Wales, 1282; Bernardino Pinturicchio, Italian painter, 1513; Olive Schreiner, South African novelist, 1920; Ed Murrow, US journalist and broadcaster, 1965. 12 December National Day of Kenya. Feast day of St Jane Frances de Chantel, St Corentin or Cury, Saints Epimachus and Alexander, St Edburga of Minster, St Vicelin, and St Finnian of Clonard. 1896 Guglielmo Marco- ni gave the first public demonstration of radio at Toynbee Hall, London, UK. 1915 The first all-metal aircraft, the German Junkers J1, made its first flight. 1925 The world's first motel, in San Luis Obispo, Califor- nia, opened. 1955 Bill Haley and the Comets recorded 'See You Later Al- ligator' at Decca Recording Studios, New York. 1955 British engineer Christopher Cockerell patented the first hovercraft. 1989 US billionai- ress Leona Helmsley, dubbed the 'Queen of Greed', was fined $7 million and sentenced to four years in prison for tax evasion. Born Gustave Fla- ubert, French novelist, 1821; Edvard Munch, Norwegian painter, 1863; Ed- ward G Robinson, US film actor, 1893; Frank Sinatra, US singer and ac- tor, 1915; Dionne Warwick, US singer, 1941; Emerson Fittipaldi, Brazili- an racing driver, 1960. Died Robert Browning, English poet, 1889; Doug- las Fairbanks, Sr, US film actor, 1939; Peter Fraser, New Zealand poli- tician, 1950; Tallulah Bankhead, US actress, 1968; Anne Baxter, US film actress, 1985. 13 December Feast day of St Lucy, St Aubert of Cambrai, St Othilia or Odilia, St Eustratius of Sebastea, and St Judocus or Josse. 1577 Francis Drake began his journey from Plymouth in the Golden Hind that was to ta- ke him around the world. 1642 Dutch navigator Abel Tasman discovered New Zealand. 1903 Molds for ice cream cones were patented by Italo Marcione of New York. 1904 The Metropolitan Underground railroad in London, UK, went electric. 1967 A military coup replaced the monarchy in Greece, sending King Constantine II into exile. 1973 Due to the Arab oil embargo and the coalminers' slowdown, the British government ordered a three-day work week. Born Heinrich Heine, German poet and journalist, 1797; John Piper, English painter and writer, 1903; Laurens van der Post, South Af- rican writer and explorer, 1906; Balthazar Johannes Vorster, South Afri- can politician, 1915; Christopher Plummer, US film actor, 1929; Howard Brenton, English dramatist, 1942. Died Maimonides, Jewish philosopher, 1204; Donatello, Italian sculptor, 1466; Dr Samuel Johnson, English le- xicographer, 1784; Wassily Kandinsky, Russian painter, 1944; Grandma Mo- ses, US primitive painter (aged 101), 1961; Mary Renault, English nove- list, 1983. 14 December Feast day of St John of the Cross, Saints Fingar or Gwinne- ar and Phiala, St Spiridion, St Venantius Fortunatus, and St Nicasius of Reims. 1900 Professor Max Planck of Berlin University revealed his revo- lutionary Quantum Theory. 1911 A Norwegian expedition led by Roald Amundsen became the first to reach the South Pole - 35 days ahead of Captain Scott. 1918 For the first time in Britain women (over 30) voted in a General Election. 1959 Archbishop Makarios was elected Cyprus' first president. 1962 US Mariner II sent the first close-up pictures of the planet Venus back to Earth. 1990 After 30 years in exile, ANC presi- dent Oliver Tambo returned to South Africa. Born Nostradamus, French physician and astrologer, 1503; Tycho Brahe, Danish astronomer and mat- hematician, 1546; Roger Fry, English painter and critic, 1866; King Ge- orge VI, 1895; Lee Remick, US actress, 1935; Stan Smith, US tennis pla- yer, 1946. Died George Washington, 1st US president, 1799; Prince Al- bert, consort of Queen Victoria, 1861; Stanley Baldwin, British politi- cian, 1947; Stanley Spencer, English painter, 1959; Andrei Sakharov, Russian physicist and human-rights campaigner, 1989. 15 December Feast day of St Nino, St Valerian, St Mary di Rosa, and St Paul of Latros. 1654 A meteorological office established in Tuscany be- gan recording daily temperature readings. 1791 The Bill of Rights' ten amendments became part of the US Constitution. 1916 In World War I, the first Battle of Verdun ended; over 700,000 German and Allied soldiers died in the action. 1939 Nylon was first produced commercially in Dela- ware, US. 1961 Nazi official Adolf Eichmann was found guilty of crimes against the Jewish people and sentenced to death, after a trial in Jeru- salem. 1982 Gibraltar's frontier with Spain was opened to pedestrian use after 13 years. 1992 Bettino Craxi, the leader of Italy's Socialist Par- ty, was informed that he was under investigation in a burgeoning corrup- tion scandal that had racked the northern city of Milan. Born Nero, Ro- man emperor, 37; George Romney, English painter, 1734; Gustave Eiffel, French engineer, 1832; John Paul Getty, US oil billionaire, 1892; Edna O'Brien, Irish novelist, 1936; Dave Clark, English pop drummer, 1942. Died Jan Vermeer, Dutch painter, 1675; Izaak Walton, English author of The Compleat Angler, 1683; Sitting Bull, chief of the Sioux Indians, 1890; Fats Waller, US jazz pianist, 1943; Charles Laughton, English ac- tor, 1962; Walt Disney, US filmmaker and animator, 1966. 16 December Feast day of St Irenion, Saints Ananiah, Azariah, and Mic- hael, and St Adelaide. 1653 Oliver Cromwell became Lord Protector of England. 1773 The Boston Tea Party, a protest against British taxation, took place off Griffin's Wharf in Boston harbor. 1809 Napoleon divorced his wife Josйphine, because she had not produced children. 1838 The Zulu chief Dingaan was defeated by a small force of Boers at Blood River - celebrated in South Africa as 'Dingaan's Day'. 1850 The first immigrant ship, the Charlotte Jane, arrived at Lyttleton, New Zealand. 1944 The Battle of the Bulge, in the Ardennes, began with a strong counter-attack by the Germans under General von Rundstedt. 1990 Jean-Bertrand Aristide, a leftist priest, was elected president in Haiti's first democratic elections. 1991 The UN General Assembly voted to repeal its 1975 resolu- tion equating Zionism with racism. Born Catherine of Aragon, 1st wife of King Henry VIII, 1485; Jane Austen, English novelist, 1775; Jack Hobbs, English cricketer, 1882; Noлl Coward, English dramatist, actor and com- poser, 1889; Margaret Mead, US anthropologist, 1901; Liv Ullmann, Norwe- gian actress, 1938. Died Wilhelm Grimm, German philologist and folklo- rist, 1859; Camille Saint-Saлns, French composer, 1921; Glenn Miller, US trombonist and bandleader, 1944; William Somerset Maugham, British nove- list, 1965; Kakuei Tanaka, Japanese politician, 1993. 17 December Feast day of St Lazarus, St Sturmi, St Begga, St Wivina, and St Olympias. 1843 A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens was publis- hed. 1892 Tchaikovsky's The Nutcracker was first performed, in St Pe- tersburg by the Russian Imperial Ballet. 1903 Orville Wright made the first successful controlled flight in a powered aircraft, at Kill Devil Hill, near Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, US. 1939 The German battleship Graf Spee was scuttled by British warships off Montvideo, Uruguay, after the Battle of the River Plate. 1973 Thirty-one people were killed at Ro- me airport after Arab guerillas hijacked a German airliner. 1986 At Pap- worth Hospital, Cambridge, Davina Thompson became the world's first re- cipient of a heart, lungs, and liver transplant. 1992 Israel deported over 400 Palestinians to Lebanese territory in an unprecedented mass ex- pulsion of suspected militants. Born Domenico Cimarosa, Italian compo- ser, 1749; Humphry Davy, English chemist and inventor, 1778; William Ly- on MacKenzie King, Canadian statesman, 1874; Erskine Caldwell, US nove- list, 1903; Tommy Steele, British singer and actor, 1936; Peter Snell, New Zealand athlete, 1938. Died Simуn Bolнvar, South American revolutio- nary leader, 1830; Alphonse Daudet, French novelist, 1897; Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, first English woman physician, 1917; Harold Holt, Aus- tralian politician, 1967; Sy Oliver, US composer, 1988. 18 December Feast day of Saints Rufus and Zosimus, St Flannan, St Wine- bald, St Gatian, and St Samthan. 1865 The US officially abolished slave- ry with the ratification of the 13th Amendment. 1903 The Panama Canal Zone was acquired 'in perpetuity' by the US, for an annual rent. 1912 The immigration of illiterate persons to the US was prohibited by Cong- ress. 1912 The discovery of the Piltdown Man in East Sussex, England was announced; it was proved to be a hoax in 1953. 1969 The death penalty for murder was abolished in Britain. 1970 Divorce became legal in Italy. 1979 The sound barrier on land was broken for the first time by Stanley Barrett, driving at 739.6 mph, in California. Born Joseph Grimaldi, Eng- lish clown, 1779; Paul Klee, Swiss painter, 1879; Willy Brandt, German statesman, 1913; Betty Grable, US film actress, 1916; Keith Richards, British guitarist, 1943; Steven Spielberg, US film director, 1947. Died Antonio Stradivari, Italian violin maker, 1737; John Alcock, English aviator, 1919; Dorothy L Sayers, English author, 1957; Bobby Jones, US golfer, 1971; Ben Travers, British dramatist, 1980; Paul Tortelier, French cellist, 1990. 19 December Feast day of St Timothy, St Gregory of Auxerre, St Anasta- sius I of Antioch, and St Nemesius of Alexandria. 1154 Henry II became King of England. 1562 The Battle of Dreux was fought between the Hugue- nots and the Catholics, beginning the French Wars of Religion. 1842 Ha- waii's independence was recognized by the US. 1955 'Blue Suede Shoes' was recorded by Carl Perkins in Memphis, Tennessee. 1957 An air service between London and Moscow was inaugurated. 1984 Ted Hughes was appointed Poet Laureate. 1984 Britain and China signed an agreement in Beijing, in which Britain agreed to transfer full sovereignty of Hong Kong to China in 1997. 1991 Bob Hawke was deposed as Australia's prime minister by his parliamentary colleagues and replaced by Paul Keating. Born William Ed- ward Parry, English Arctic explorer, 1790; Albert Abraham Michelson, US physicist, 1852; Ralph Richardson, English actor, 1902; Leonid Brezhnev, Soviet leader, 1906; Jean Genet, French dramatist and essayist, 1910; Edith Piaf, French singer, 1915. Died Vitus Bering, Danish navigator, 1741; Emily Brontл, English novelist, 1848; Joseph Turner, English pain- ter, 1851; Robert Andrews Millikan, US physicist, 1953; Alexei Nikolaie- vich Kosygin, Soviet politician, 1980; Stella Gibbons, English author, 1989. 20 December Feast day of St Dominic of Silos, St Ammon and his Compani- ons, St Ursicinus, and St Philogonius. 1860 South Carolina seceded from the American Union, and joined the Confederacy. 1915 The ANZACS, Austra- lian and New Zealand forces with British troops were evacuated from Gal- lipoli, after their expedition against the Turks went seriously wrong. 1933 Flying Down to Rio, the first film to feature Fred Astaire and Gin- ger Rogers, was first shown in New York. 1957 Elvis Presley, at the he- ight of his stardom, received his draft papers. 1989 General Noriega, Panama's former dictator, was overthrown by a US invasion force invited by the new civilian government. 1990 Soviet Foregn Minister Shevardnadze resigned, complaining of conservative attacks on his policies. Born Ro- bert Menzies, Australian politician, 1894; James Leasor, English author, 1923; Geoffrey Howe, British politician, 1926; Uri Geller, Israeli psyc- hic/illusionist, 1946; Jenny Agutter, English actress, 1952; Billy Bragg, English rock singer, 1958. Died Erich Ludendorff, German general, 1937; James Hilton, English novelist, 1954; John Steinbeck, US novelist, 1968; Artur Rubinstein, US pianist, 1982; Bill Brandt, British photog- rapher, 1983. 21 December Feast day of St Thomas the Apostle, Saints Themistocles and Dioscorus, St John Vincent, St Anastasius II of Antioch, St Peter Cani- sius, and St Glycerius. 1620 The Pilgrim Fathers, aboard the Mayflower, landed at Plymouth Rock, Massachusetts. 1879 Ibsen's A Doll's House was first performed in Copenhagen, with a revised happy ending. 1925 Eisens- tein's film Battleship Potemkin was first shown in Moscow. 1937 Walt Disney's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was shown in Los Angeles, the first full-length animated talking picture. 1958 Charles de Gaulle beca- me President of France. 1988 A Pan Am jet blew up in mid-flight and crashed in Lockerbie, Scotland, killing all 259 passengers aboard and 11 people on the ground; the terrorist bomb had been concealed within a ra- dio. 1990 In a German television interview, Saddam Hussein declared that he would not withdraw from Kuwait by the UN deadline. Born Benjamin Dis- raeli, British politician, 1804; Joseph Stalin, Soviet leader, 1879; He- inrich Bцll, German author, 1917; Jane Fonda, US film actress, 1937; Frank Zappa, US rock singer and composer, 1940; Chris Evert, US tennis player, 1954. Died Giovanni Boccaccio, Italian author, 1375; James Par- kinson, British neurologist, 1824; F Scott Fitzgerald, US novelist, 1940; George Patton, US military leader, 1945; Jack Hobbs, English cric- keter, 1963. 22 December Feast day of St Flavian of Tuscany, St Zeno, St Chaeremon and Others, and St Ischyrion. 1715 James Stuart, the 'Old Pretender', landed at Petershead after his exile in France. 1864 The Geneva Conven- tion was originated. 1894 Alfred Dreyfus, the French officer who was falsely convicted for selling military secrets, was sent to Devil's Is- land. 1895 German physicist Wilhelm Rцntgen made the first X-ray, of his wife's hand. 1945 The US recognized Josip Tito's government in Yugosla- via. 1961 James Davis became the first US soldier to die in Vietnam, while US involvement was still limited to the provision of military ad- visers. 1989 Romanian dictator Nicolae Ceausзescu was overthrown in a bloody revolutionary coup. 1991 Eleven of the 12 Soviet republics (exc- luding Georgia) agreed, in Alma Ata, Kazakhstan, on the creation of a Commonwealth of Independent States. Born John Crome, English painter, 1768; John Nevil Maskelyne, English stage magician, 1839; Giacomo Pucci- ni, Italian composer, 1858; Peggy Ashcroft, English actress, 1907; Noel Edmonds, English TV presenter, 1948; Maurice and Robin Gibb, Australian pop musicians, 1949. Died George Eliot, English novelist, 1880; Beatrix Potter, English author and artist, 1943; Harry Langdon, US silent film comedian, 1944; Richard Dimbleby, British broadcaster, 1965; Samuel Bec- kett, Irish author and dramatist, 1989. 23 December Feast day of The Ten Martyrs of Crete, St Dagobert II of Austria, St John of Kanti, Saints Victoria and Anatolia, St Frithebert, St Servulus, and St Thorlac. 1834 English architect Joseph Hansom paten- ted his 'safety cab', better known as the Hansom cab. 1888 Following a quarrel with Paul Gauguin, Dutch painter Vincent Van Gogh cut off part of his own earlobe. 1922 The BBC began daily news broadcasts in Britain. 1948 General Tojo and six other Japanese military leaders were executed, having been found guilty of crimes against humanity. 1953 Soviet secret police chief Lavrenti Beria and six of his associates were shot for tre- ason following a secret trial. 1986 Dick Rutan and Jeana Yeager made the first non-stop flight around the world without refueling, piloting the US plane Voyager. 1965 A 70-mph speed limit was introduced in Britain. 1990 Elections in Yugoslavia ended, leaving four of its six republics with non-Communist governments. Born Richard Arkwright, English inven- tor, 1732; Alexander I, tsar of Russia, 1777; Samuel Smiles, Scottish author, 1812; J Arthur Rank, British film magnate, 1888; Maurice Denham, English actor, 1909; Helmut Schmidt, German statesman, 1918. Died Micha- el Drayton, English poet, 1631; Thomas Robert Malthus, English econo- mist, 1834; George Catlin, US painter and explorer, 1872; Charles Dana Gibson, US artist and illustrator, 1944; Henry Cotton, British golfer, 1987; Ernst Krenek, US composer, 1991. 24 December Feast day of St Gregory of Spoleto, Saints, Tharsilla and Emiliana, St Adela, St Irmina, St Delphinus, and St Sharbel Makhlouf. 1814 The War of 1812 between the US and Britain was brought to an end with the signing of the Treaty of Ghent. 1828 William Burke who, with his partner William Hare, dug up the dead and murdered to sell the corp- ses for dissection, went on trial in Edinburgh. 1871 Verdi's Aida was first performed in Cairo. 1914 The first air raid on Britain was made when a German airplane dropped a bomb on the grounds of a rectory in Do- ver. 1951 Libya achieved independence as the United Kingdom of Libya, under King Idris. 1965 A meteorite landed on Leicestershire, UK; it we- ighed about 100lbs. 1979 Afghanistan was invaded by Soviet troops as the Kabul government fell. Born King John, 1167; Ignatius of Loyola, Spanish founder of the Jesuits, 1491; Matthew Arnold, English poet and critic, 1822; Howard Hughes, US tycoon, 1905; Ava Gardner, US film actress, 1922; Colin Cowdrey, English cricketer, 1932. Died Vasco da Gama, Portu- guese explorer and navigator, 1524; W M Thackeray, English novelist, 1863; Leon Bakst, Russian painter and stage designer, 1924; Alban Berg, Austrian composer, 1935; Frank Richards, English writer, 1961; Karl Doe- nitz, German naval commander, 1980. 25 December Christmas Day. Feast day of The Martyrs of Nicomedia, St Eugenia, St Alburga, and St Anastasia of Sirmium. 800 Charlemagne was crowned first Holy Roman Emperor in Rome by Pope Leo III. 1066 William the Conqueror was crowned king of England at Westminster Abbey. 1914 Du- ring World War I, British and German troops observed an unofficial tru- ce, even playing football together on the Western Front's 'no man's land'. 1926 Hirohito succeeded his father Yoshihito as emperor of Japan. 1941 Hong Kong surrendered to the Japanese. 1972 The Nicaraguan capital Managua was devastated by an earthquake which killed over 10,000 people. 1989 Dissident playwright Vaclav Havel was elected president of Czechos- lovakia. 1991 Unable to maintain control over a disintegrating Soviet Union, Mikhail Gorbachev announced his resignation as president. Born Isaac Newton, English scientist, 1642; Maurice Utrillo, French painter, 1883; Humphrey Bogart, US film actor, 1899; Anwar Sadat, Egyptian sta- tesman, 1918; Sissy Spacek, US film actress, 1949; Annie Lennox, British pop singer, 1954. Died Karel Capek, Czech dramatist, 1938; W C Fields, US actor and screenwriter, 1946; Charlie Chaplin, English actor and di- rector, 1977; Joan Mirу, Spanish artist, 1983; Nicolae Ceausзescu, Roma- nian politician, executed, 1989. 26 December Boxing Day in Britain (Handsel Day in Scotland). Feast day of St Stephen, St Dionysius, pope, St Archelaus of Kashkar, St Vicentia Lopez, St Zosimus, pope, and St Tathai or Athaeus. 1898 Marie and Pierre Curie discovered radium. 1908 Texan boxer 'Galveston Jack' Johnson knoc- ked out Tommy Burns in Sydney, Australia, to become the first black bo- xer to win the world heavyweight title. 1943 The German battlecruiser Scharnhorst was sunk in the North Sea, during the Battle of North Cape. 1956 Fidel Castro attempted a secret landing in Cuba to overthrow the Batista regime; all but 11 of his supporters were killed. 1959 The first charity walk took place, along Icknield Way, in aid of the World Refugee Fund. 1991 The Soviet Union's parliament formally voted the country out of existence. Born Thomas Gray, English poet, 1716; Charles Babbage, English mathematician, 1792; Henry Miller, US novelist, 1891; Mao Ze- dong, Chinese Communist leader, 1893; Richard Widmark, US film actor, 1914; Jane Lapotaire, English actress, 1944. Died John Wilkes, British politician and journalist, 1797; Heinrich Schliemann, German archeolo- gist, 1890; Charles Pathй, French film pioneer, 1957; Harry S Truman, 33rd US president, 1972; Jack Benny, US comedian, 1974. 27 December Feast day of St John the Evangelist, St Fabiola, Saints Theodore and Theophanes Graptoi, and St Nicarete. 1703 The Methuen Trea- ty was signed between Portugal and England, giving preference to the im- port of Portuguese wines into England. 1831 Charles Darwin set sail in the Beagle on his voyage of scientific discovery. 1904 James Barrie's Peter Pan premiered in London, UK. 1927 Defeated in his struggle for po- wer against Stalin, Leon Trotsky was expelled from the Communist Party. 1945 The IMF (International Monetary Fund) and the World Bank were es- tablished. 1965 The BP oil rig Sea Gem capsized in the North Sea, with the loss of 13 lives. 1978 With the adoption of a new constitution, Spa- in became a democracy after 40 years of dictatorship. Born Johannes Kep- ler, German astronomer, 1571; George Cayley, British aviation pioneer, 1773; Louis Pasteur, French chemist and microbiologist, 1822; Sydney Greenstreet, English film actor, 1878; Marlene Dietrich, German singer and actress, 1901; Gerard Depardieu, French film actor, 1948. Died Char- les Lamb, English essayist and critic, 1834; Max Beckmann, German pain- ter, 1950; Lester Pearson, Canadian statesman, 1972; Houari Boumйdienne, Algerian politician, 1978; Hoagy Carmichael, US composer, singer, and pianist, 1981; Hervй Guibert, French novelist and photographer, 1992. 28 December Feast day of the Holy Innocents, St Antony of Lйrins, and St Theodore the Sanctified. 1065 Westminster Abbey was consecrated under Edward the Confessor. 1836 Mexico's independence was recognized by Spa- in. 1879 The central portion of the Tay Bridge collapsed as a train was passing over it, killing 75 people. 1908 An earthquake killed over 75,000 at Messina in Sicily. 1926 The highest recorded cricket innings score of 1107 runs was hit by Victoria, against New South Wales, in Mel- bourne. 1937 The Irish Free State became the Republic of Ireland when a new constitution established the country as a sovereign state under the name of Eire. 1950 The Peak District became Britain's first designated National Park. 1989 Alexander Dubcek, who had been expelled from the Communist Party in 1970, was elected speaker of the Czech parliament. Born Woodrow Wilson, 28th US president, 1856; Arthur Stanley Eddington, English astronomer, 1882; Earl Hines, US jazz pianist, 1905; Lew Ayres, US film actor, 1908, Maggie Smith, English actress, 1934; Nigel Kennedy, English violinist, 1956. Died Queen Mary II, 1694; Rob Roy, Scottish clan chief, 1734; Gustave Eiffel, French engineer, 1923; Maurice Ravel, French composer, 1937; Max Steiner, US film music composer, 1971; Sam Peckinpah, US film director, 1984. 29 December Feast day of St Thomas of Canterbury, St Ebrulf or Evroult, St Trophimus of Arles, and St Maroellus Akimetes. 1170 St Thomas … Bec- ket, the 40th Archbishop of Canterbury, was murdered in his own cathed- ral by four knights acting on Henry II's orders. 1860 HMS Warrior, Bri- tain's first seagoing iron-clad warship, was launched. 1890 The massacre at Wounded Knee, the last major battle between Native American Indians and US troops, took place. 1895 The Jameson Raid from Mafikeng into Transvaal, which attempted to overthrow Kruger's Boer government, star- ted. 1911 Sun Yat-sen became the first president of a republican China, following the Revolution. 1989 Following Hong Kong's decision to forcib- ly repatriate some Vietnamese refugees, thousands of Vietnamese 'boat people' battled with riot police. Born Marquise de Pompadour, mistress of King Louis XV, 1721; Charles Goodyear, US inventor, 1800; William Gladstone, English statesman, 1809; Pablo Casals, Spanish cellist, 1876; Jon Voight, US film actor, 1938; Marianne Faithfull, English singer and actress, 1946. Died Thomas Sydenham, English physician, 1689; Jacques Louis David, French painter, 1825; Christina Georgina Rossetti, English poet, 1894; Rainer Maria Rilke, German poet, 1926; James Fletcher Hen- derson, US jazz pianist and composer, 1952; Harold Macmillan, British politician, 1986. 30 December Feast day of St Sabinus of Spoleto, St Anysia, St Anysius, and St Egwin. 1460 At the Battle of Wakefield, in the Wars of the Roses, the Duke of York was defeated and killed by the Lancastrians. 1879 Gil- bert and Sullivan's The Pirates of Penzance was first performed, at Pa- ignton, Devon, UK. 1880 The Transvaal was declared a republic by Paul Kruger, who became its first president. 1887 A petition to Queen Victo- ria with over one million names of women appealing for public houses to be closed on Sundays was handed to the home secretary. 1919 Lincoln's Inn, in London, UK, admitted the first female bar student. 1922 The Uni- on of Soviet Socialist Republics was formed. 1947 King Michael of Roma- nia abdicated in favor of a Communist Republic. 1988 Colonel Oliver North subpoenaed President Reagan and Vice President Bush to testify at the Irangate hearings. Born Andrй Messager, French composer, 1853; Rudy- ard Kipling, English author and poet, 1865; Carol Reed, English film di- rector, 1906; Bo Diddley, US rhythm and blues singer, 1928; Tracey Ull- man, English comedienne, 1959; Ben Johnson, Canadian athlete, 1961. Died Robert Boyle, Irish physicist and chemist, 1691; Amelia Bloomer, US so- cial reformer, 1894; Grigoriy Efimovich Rasputin, Siberian mystic, 1916; Trygve Lie, Norwegian politician and diplomat, 1968; Richard Rodgers, US composer, 1979.31 December New Year's Eve. Feast day of St Silvester I, pope, St Melania the Younger, and St Columba of Sens. 31 December New Year's Eve. Feast day of St Silvester I, pope, St Mela- nia the Younger, and St Columba of Sens. 1687 The first Huguenots set sail from France for the Cape of Good Hope, where they would later crea- te the South African wine industry with the vines they took with them on the voyage. 1695 The window tax was imposed in Britain, which resulted in many being bricked up. 1891 New York's new Immigration Depot was ope- ned at Ellis Island, to provide improved facilities for the massive num- bers of arrivals. 1923 The chimes of Big Ben, London, UK, were first broadcast by the BBC. 1960 The farthing coin, which had been in use in Great Britain since the 13th century, ceased to be legal tender. 1990 Titleholder Gary Kasparov of the USSR won the world chess championship match against his countryman Anatoly Karpov. Born Charles Edward Stuart, the Young Pretender, 1720; Henri Matisse, French painter, 1869; George Marshall, US general, 1880; Anthony Hopkins, Welsh actor, 1937; Ben Kingsley, British actor, 1943; Donna Summer, US singer, 1948. Died John Flamsteed, first Astronomer Royal, 1719; Gustave Courbet, French pain- ter, 1877; Miguel de Unamuno, Spanish writer, 1936; Malcolm Campbell, British racing driver, 1948; Maxim Litvinov, Soviet leader, 1951; Rick Nelson, US rock and country singer, 1985 |